Bottom-up Policy Diffusion: National Emulation of a Conditional Cash Transfer Program in Brazil

Policy diffusion studies often invoke explanations that draw on the directional pressures for emulation, whether top-down, horizontal, or bottom-up. This article develops a theoretical framework that accounts for the multidirectional features of diffusion, including sub-national, cross-national, and international mechanisms, through the illustrative case of Brazil's federal adoption of Bolsa Escola (School Grant Program), a conditional cash transfer program that preceded the internationally acclaimed poverty alleviation program called Bolsa Família (Family Grant Program). Using process tracing, I argue that bottom-up pressures, including professional norms and intergovernmental competition, were key for policy emulation. Cross-national competition had little effect on decision-making. Finally, top-down processes, including norms and financing, reinforced adoption decisions and ensured these programs would endure. Copyright 2012, Oxford University Press.