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Educated predators make strategic decisions to eat defended prey according to their toxin content

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  • Craig A. Barnett
  • John Skelhorn
  • Melissa Bateson
  • Candy Rowe

Abstract

Animals often eat foods containing toxins to benefit from the nutrients that they contain. Understanding how animals balance the costs of eating toxins with the benefits of gaining nutrients is important for understanding the evolution of antipredator defenses, particularly aposematism and mimicry. In this study, we tested whether predators could learn to use color signals to make strategic decisions about when to include prey that varied in their toxin content in their diets. We gave European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) daily sessions of sequentially presented mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). There were 3 types of mealworm which were made discriminable using color signals: undefended mealworms injected with water, mildly defended mealworms injected with 1% quinine solution, and moderately defended mealworms injected with 3% quinine solution. Birds learned to eat more undefended than defended prey and more mildly than moderately defended prey. Crucially, when we manipulated the birds’ energetic states using food restriction, we found that they increased the number of defended prey that they ate but maintained their relative preferences. Birds made state-dependent decisions based upon their knowledge of the amount of toxin prey contained and their current energetic need. Our results provide novel insights into the evolution of aposematic signals and also demonstrate that we may need to develop new models of the evolution of mimicry based on the state-dependent behavior of predators. Our data also have broader implications for the study of nutrient–toxin trade-offs across a range of different ecological scenarios.

Suggested Citation

  • Craig A. Barnett & John Skelhorn & Melissa Bateson & Candy Rowe, 2012. "Educated predators make strategic decisions to eat defended prey according to their toxin content," Behavioral Ecology, International Society for Behavioral Ecology, vol. 23(2), pages 418-424.
  • Handle: RePEc:oup:beheco:v:23:y:2012:i:2:p:418-424.
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    File URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10.1093/beheco/arr206
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. CA Barnett & M Bateson & C Rowe, 2007. "State-dependent decision making: educated predators strategically trade off the costs and benefits of consuming aposematic prey," Behavioral Ecology, International Society for Behavioral Ecology, vol. 18(4), pages 645-651.
    2. Nicola M. Marples & Micheal Quinlan & Robert J. Thomas & David J. Kelly, 2007. "Deactivation of dietary wariness through experience of novel food," Behavioral Ecology, International Society for Behavioral Ecology, vol. 18(5), pages 803-810.
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    Cited by:

    1. Alice Exnerová & Dana Ježová & Pavel Štys & Lucia Doktorovová & Bibiana Rojas & Johanna Mappes, 2015. "Different reactions to aposematic prey in 2 geographically distant populations of great tits," Behavioral Ecology, International Society for Behavioral Ecology, vol. 26(5), pages 1361-1370.
    2. Anna Bordiean & Michał Krzyżaniak & Mariusz J. Stolarski & Stanisław Czachorowski & Dumitru Peni, 2020. "Will Yellow Mealworm Become a Source of Safe Proteins for Europe?," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 10(6), pages 1-30, June.
    3. à Ziem, D.C. Bitang & Gninzanlong, C.L. & Tabi, C.B. & Kofané, T.C., 2021. "Dynamics and pattern formation of a diffusive predator - prey model in the subdiffusive regime in presence of toxicity," Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, Elsevier, vol. 151(C).
    4. Chi-Yun Kuo & Hao-En Chin & Yu-Zhe Wu, 2023. "Intricate covariation between exploration and avoidance learning in a generalist predator," Behavioral Ecology, International Society for Behavioral Ecology, vol. 34(4), pages 708-717.

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    1. Alice Exnerová & Dana Ježová & Pavel Štys & Lucia Doktorovová & Bibiana Rojas & Johanna Mappes, 2015. "Different reactions to aposematic prey in 2 geographically distant populations of great tits," Behavioral Ecology, International Society for Behavioral Ecology, vol. 26(5), pages 1361-1370.
    2. à Ziem, D.C. Bitang & Gninzanlong, C.L. & Tabi, C.B. & Kofané, T.C., 2021. "Dynamics and pattern formation of a diffusive predator - prey model in the subdiffusive regime in presence of toxicity," Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, Elsevier, vol. 151(C).

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