A Multi-Layered Socio-Ecological Framework for Investigating Teacher Well-Being: Key Predictors and Protective Factors

Understanding the factors that influence teacher well-being is crucial as it significantly affects students, teachers, schools, and the sustainability of the education system, especially during prolonged emergencies. This study contributes to the field by empirically testing a conceptual model of teacher well-being in emergency contexts, specifically addressing the COVID-19 school closures with a sample of over 19,600 teachers from Kazakhstan through an online survey design. Utilising a multidimensional socio-ecological framework that considers individual, school and home, community, and national factors, this study identifies key predictors of teacher self-reported well-being. Individual-level predictors explained 9.3% of the variation in physical well-being (F = 118, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.093) and 4.5% in psychological well-being (F = 72.2, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.045). In contrast, school- and home-level predictors demonstrated significantly greater explanatory power, accounting for 21.9% (F = 128, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.219) and 15.5% (F = 89.5, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.155) of the variation in physical and psychological well-being, respectively. Community-level predictors explained 12.8% of the variation in physical well-being (F = 191, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.128) and 10.2% in psychological well-being (F = 324, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.102), while national-level predictors accounted for much smaller proportions: 0.67% for physical well-being (F = 21.8, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.0067) and 1.4% for psychological well-being (F = 83.589, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.014). These findings highlight the significant influence of home and school, as well as community-level predictors, on teacher well-being during emergency contexts, suggesting that interventions targeting these areas may be particularly effective in supporting teacher well-being. The findings reveal that while Kazakhstani teachers reported poor physical well-being, they generally had a more positive assessment of their psychological well-being. Vulnerable groups included women, older teachers, non-Kazakh teachers, and those with higher education levels, as well as teachers in Russian medium and mixed-medium schools, all of whom reported lower physical and psychological well-being. Additional risk factors identified were a lack of student engagement, difficult relationships with parents, a directive leadership style, family conflicts, and inadequate resources at home and school. Conversely, protective factors such as teacher autonomy, collegiality, networking opportunities, and self-efficacy emerged as significant contributors to well-being. These findings reveal a complex interplay between cultural factors and subjective perceptions of well-being. This study emphasises the critical role of these predictors in both emergency and non-emergency contexts, underscoring the urgent need for targeted policies and programmes that sustainably support and enhance teacher well-being holistically. This approach will promote Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3 (well-being) and ensure access to equitable quality education (SDG 4) for all learners, ultimately contributing to the overall resilience of educational systems.