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Evaluating the Impact of Urban Encroachment and Land Cover Changes on World Cultural Heritage Site Taxila: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis from 1990 to 2024

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  • Najam us Saqib Zaheer Butt

    (Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China
    International Centre on Space Technologies for Natural and Cultural Heritage, Beijing 100094, China
    University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China)

  • Xinyuan Wang

    (Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China
    International Centre on Space Technologies for Natural and Cultural Heritage, Beijing 100094, China
    International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China)

  • Lei Luo

    (Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China
    International Centre on Space Technologies for Natural and Cultural Heritage, Beijing 100094, China
    International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China)

  • Hammad Ul Hussan

    (Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China
    University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
    National Engineering Research Center for Satellite Remote Sensing Applications, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China)

Abstract

Rapid global urbanization during the late 20th and early 21st centuries has induced substantial land cover changes, posing significant threats to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites. In this study, we investigated the spatio-temporal change in urban development in response to land use transformations in the world cultural heritage site (CHS) of Taxila, Pakistan, to check the possible threats faced by the site. Land transfer matrices were used to assess the land cover change (LCC) between 1990 and 2024. Support vector machine and Getis–Ord Gi techniques were employed for LCC classification and spatial pattern interpretation, respectively, which were later evaluated by the high spatial resolution imagery of KH-9 (Keyhole-9), Google Earth Pro and Gaofen-2. The results indicate a significant increase in built-up area from 23.68 km 2 to 78.5 km 2 , accompanied by a substantial rise in bare land from 8.56 km 2 to 26.5 km 2 between 1990 and 2024, which is quite irregular. LCC transformations were notable, with 13.1 km 2 of cropland and 44.8 km 2 vegetation being converted into 4.4 km 2 of built-up area and 14.5 km 2 into bare land during the 1990 to 2024 period. Getis–Ord Gi analysis observed a high Z-score value and showed low to high clustering patterns in the proximity of the Sarakhola and Bhir Mound sites from 1990 to 2024. Furthermore, high spatial resolution imagery indicates the loss of the core zone of the Sarakhola site from 0.0168 to 0.0032 km 2 from 2004 to 2024, which was the major threat to its outstanding universal venue (OUV) status. The findings of the current study indicate that the CHS under study is facing an alarming situation for conservation due to rapid urban development and encroachment. Therefore, local government should strictly implement the heritage law and revisit their policies to promote conservation efforts to maintain the authenticity and integrity of this world CHS.

Suggested Citation

  • Najam us Saqib Zaheer Butt & Xinyuan Wang & Lei Luo & Hammad Ul Hussan, 2025. "Evaluating the Impact of Urban Encroachment and Land Cover Changes on World Cultural Heritage Site Taxila: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis from 1990 to 2024," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(3), pages 1-19, January.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:3:p:1059-:d:1578687
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Yingying Zhang & Hong Zhang & Zheng Sun, 2018. "Effects of Urban Growth on Architectural Heritage: The Case of Buddhist Monasteries in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(5), pages 1-18, May.
    2. Hammad Ul Hussan & Hua Li & Qinhuo Liu & Barjeece Bashir & Tian Hu & Shouyi Zhong, 2024. "Investigating Land Cover Changes and Their Impact on Land Surface Temperature in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(7), pages 1-20, March.
    3. Rosa Lasaponara & Beniamino Murgante & Abdelaziz Elfadaly & Mohamad Molaei Qelichi & Saeed Zanganeh Shahraki & Osama Wafa & Wael Attia, 2017. "Spatial Open Data for Monitoring Risks and Preserving Archaeological Areas and Landscape: Case Studies at Kom el Shoqafa, Egypt and Shush, Iran," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 9(4), pages 1-25, April.
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