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Using Metaphors to Understand Suffering in COVID-19 Survivors: A Two Time-Point Observational Follow-Up Study

Author

Listed:
  • Alvisa Palese

    (School of Nursing, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Erica Visintini

    (School of Nursing, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Valentina Bressan

    (School of Nursing, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Federico Fonda

    (School of Nursing, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Stefania Chiappinotto

    (School of Nursing, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Luca Grassetti

    (Department of Economics and Statistics (DIES), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Maddalena Peghin

    (Infectious and Tropical Diseases Unit, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Insubria-ASST-Sette Laghi, 33100 Varese, Italy)

  • Carlo Tascini

    (Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Matteo Balestrieri

    (Unit of Psychiatry, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy)

  • Marco Colizzi

    (Unit of Psychiatry, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
    Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London SE5 8AF, UK)

Abstract

Accumulating evidence indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic carries risks to psychological health and represents a collective traumatic experience with consequences at the social, economic, and health levels. The primary aim of this study was to collect ongoing COVID-19 survivors’ pandemic-related experiences as expressed through the use of metaphors; the secondary aim was to explore socio-demographic variables associated with the metaphor orientation as negative, positive or neutral. An observational follow-up survey was conducted and reported according to the STROBE guidelines. Patients ≥ 18 years, who were treated for COVID-19 during the first wave (March/April 2020) and who were willing to participate in a telephone interview were involved and asked to summarize their COVID-19 experience as lived up to 6 and 12 months in a metaphor. A total of 339 patients participated in the first (6 months) and second (12 months) data collection. Patients were mainly female (51.9%), with an average age of 52.9 years (confidence interval, CI 95% 51.2–54.6). At 6 months, most participants (214; 63.1%) used a negative-oriented metaphor, further increasing at 12 months (266; 78.5%), when they used fewer neutral-/positive-oriented metaphors ( p < 0.001). At the 6-month follow-up, only three individual variables (female gender, education, and experiencing symptoms at the COVID-19 onset) were significantly different across the possible metaphor orientation; at 12 months, no individual variables were significantly associated. This study suggests increasingly negative lived experiences over time and the need for personalized healthcare pathways to face the long-term traumatic consequences of COVID-19.

Suggested Citation

  • Alvisa Palese & Erica Visintini & Valentina Bressan & Federico Fonda & Stefania Chiappinotto & Luca Grassetti & Maddalena Peghin & Carlo Tascini & Matteo Balestrieri & Marco Colizzi, 2023. "Using Metaphors to Understand Suffering in COVID-19 Survivors: A Two Time-Point Observational Follow-Up Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(2), pages 1-13, January.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:20:y:2023:i:2:p:1390-:d:1033268
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Cuiyan Wang & Riyu Pan & Xiaoyang Wan & Yilin Tan & Linkang Xu & Cyrus S. Ho & Roger C. Ho, 2020. "Immediate Psychological Responses and Associated Factors during the Initial Stage of the 2019 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Epidemic among the General Population in China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(5), pages 1-25, March.
    2. Mojtaba Vaismoradi & Hannele Turunen & Terese Bondas, 2013. "Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study," Nursing & Health Sciences, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 15(3), pages 398-405, September.
    3. Hui Chen & Yingjie Chen & Yinghuan Zhang & Zhiqiang Wang & Dake Shi & Jialin Liu & Xiaodong Yang & Lulu Xu & Yong Cai & Fan Hu, 2022. "Social Stigma and Depression among Asymptomatic COVID-19 Carriers in Shanghai, China: The Mediating Role of Entrapment and Decadence," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(20), pages 1-13, October.
    4. Alessandro Germani & Livia Buratta & Elisa Delvecchio & Claudia Mazzeschi, 2020. "Emerging Adults and COVID-19: The Role of Individualism-Collectivism on Perceived Risks and Psychological Maladjustment," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(10), pages 1-15, May.
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