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Assessing the Energy Footprint of Desalination Technologies and Minimal/Zero Liquid Discharge (MLD/ZLD) Systems for Sustainable Water Protection via Renewable Energy Integration

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  • Argyris Panagopoulos

    (School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece)

Abstract

Water scarcity necessitates desalination technologies, yet their high energy demands and brine disposal challenges hinder sustainability. This research study evaluates the energy footprint and carbon emissions of thermal- and membrane-based desalination technologies, alongside Minimal/Zero Liquid Discharge (MLD/ZLD) frameworks, with a focus on renewable energy source (RES) integration. Data revealed stark contrasts: thermal-based technologies like osmotic evaporation (OE) and brine crystallizers (BCr) exhibit energy intensities of 80–100 kWh/m 3 and 52–70 kWh/m 3 , respectively, with coal-powered carbon footprints reaching 72–100 kg CO 2 /m 3 . Membrane-based technologies, such as reverse osmosis (RO) (2–6 kWh/m 3 ) and forward osmosis (FO) (0.8–13 kWh/m 3 ), demonstrate lower emissions (1.8–11.7 kg CO 2 /m 3 under coal). Transitioning to RES reduces emissions by 90–95%, exemplified by renewable energy-powered RO (0.1–0.3 kg CO 2 /m 3 ). However, scalability barriers persist, including high capital costs, RES intermittency, and technological immaturity in emerging systems like osmotically assisted RO (OARO) and membrane distillation (MD). This research highlights RES-driven MLD/ZLD systems as pivotal for aligning desalination with global climate targets, urging innovations in energy storage, material robustness, and circular economy models to secure water resource resilience.

Suggested Citation

  • Argyris Panagopoulos, 2025. "Assessing the Energy Footprint of Desalination Technologies and Minimal/Zero Liquid Discharge (MLD/ZLD) Systems for Sustainable Water Protection via Renewable Energy Integration," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(4), pages 1-17, February.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:4:p:962-:d:1593177
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Sagar Shelare & Ravinder Kumar & Trupti Gajbhiye & Sumit Kanchan, 2023. "Role of Geothermal Energy in Sustainable Water Desalination—A Review on Current Status, Parameters, and Challenges," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(6), pages 1-22, March.
    2. Hussein M. Maghrabie & Abdul Ghani Olabi & Ahmed Rezk & Ali Radwan & Abdul Hai Alami & Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem, 2023. "Energy Storage for Water Desalination Systems Based on Renewable Energy Resources," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(7), pages 1-34, March.
    3. Konstantin Osintsev & Sergei Aliukov & Sulpan Kuskarbekova & Tatyana Tarasova & Aleksandr Karelin & Vladimir Konchakov & Olga Kornyakova, 2023. "Increasing Thermal Efficiency: Methods, Case Studies, and Integration of Heat Exchangers with Renewable Energy Sources and Heat Pumps for Desalination," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(13), pages 1-36, June.
    4. Ganesh Radhakrishnan & Daniel Breaz & Khalid Abdul Aziz Al Riyami & Wahab Sulaiman Al Nadabi & Talal Yahya Al Nadabi & Kadhavoor R. Karthikeyan, 2023. "Performance Investigation on a Double-Slope Passive Solar Desalination System Targeting towards Sustainable Development of Oman," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(16), pages 1-10, August.
    5. Ahmed E. Abu El-Maaty & Mohamed M. Awad & Gamal I. Sultan & Ahmed M. Hamed, 2023. "Innovative Approaches to Solar Desalination: A Comprehensive Review of Recent Research," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(9), pages 1-31, May.
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