IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/pacfin/v58y2019ics0927538x18305912.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Dynamic spillovers and connectedness between stock, commodities, bonds, and VIX markets

Author

Listed:
  • Kang, Sang Hoon
  • Maitra, Debasish
  • Dash, Saumya Ranjan
  • Brooks, Robert

Abstract

•This study examines dynamic spillovers and connectedness between stocks, commodities, bonds, and VIX markets.•Results suggest that emerging equity markets are net receiver of shocks.•Commodity markets provide poor heading opportunity in the short-run.•Portfolio strategy using shock-receiver and shock-transmitter information generates better hedging effectiveness.

Suggested Citation

  • Kang, Sang Hoon & Maitra, Debasish & Dash, Saumya Ranjan & Brooks, Robert, 2019. "Dynamic spillovers and connectedness between stock, commodities, bonds, and VIX markets," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 58(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:pacfin:v:58:y:2019:i:c:s0927538x18305912
    DOI: 10.1016/j.pacfin.2019.101221
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927538X18305912
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.pacfin.2019.101221?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Capelle-Blancard, Gunther & Havrylchyk, Olena, 2016. "The impact of the French securities transaction tax on market liquidity and volatility," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 47(C), pages 166-178.
    2. Tillmann, Peter, 2016. "Unconventional monetary policy and the spillovers to emerging markets," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 66(C), pages 136-156.
    3. Hélène Rey, 2016. "International Channels of Transmission of Monetary Policy and the Mundellian Trilemma," IMF Economic Review, Palgrave Macmillan;International Monetary Fund, vol. 64(1), pages 6-35, May.
    4. Bodart, Vincent & Candelon, Bertrand, 2009. "Evidence of interdependence and contagion using a frequency domain framework," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 10(2), pages 140-150, June.
    5. International Monetary Fund, 2013. "France: Selected Issues," IMF Staff Country Reports 2013/003, International Monetary Fund.
    6. Tsai, I-C., 2014. "Spillover of fear: Evidence from the stock markets of five developed countries," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 33(C), pages 281-288.
    7. Chen, Qianying & Filardo, Andrew & He, Dong & Zhu, Feng, 2016. "Financial crisis, US unconventional monetary policy and international spillovers," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 67(C), pages 62-81.
    8. Gallegati, Marco, 2012. "A wavelet-based approach to test for financial market contagion," Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 56(11), pages 3491-3497.
    9. Yip, Pick Schen & Brooks, Robert & Do, Hung Xuan, 2017. "Dynamic spillover between commodities and commodity currencies during United States Q.E," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(C), pages 399-410.
    10. Antonakakis, N. & Badinger, H., 2016. "Economic growth, volatility, and cross-country spillovers: New evidence for the G7 countries," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 52(PB), pages 352-365.
    11. Mensi, Walid & Beljid, Makram & Boubaker, Adel & Managi, Shunsuke, 2013. "Correlations and volatility spillovers across commodity and stock markets: Linking energies, food, and gold," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 32(C), pages 15-22.
    12. Kang, Wensheng & Ratti, Ronald A. & Yoon, Kyung Hwan, 2014. "The impact of oil price shocks on U.S. bond market returns," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 44(C), pages 248-258.
    13. Alter, Adrian & Beyer, Andreas, 2014. "The dynamics of spillover effects during the European sovereign debt turmoil," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 134-153.
    14. Chang, Chia-Lin & McAleer, Michael & Tansuchat, Roengchai, 2011. "Crude oil hedging strategies using dynamic multivariate GARCH," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(5), pages 912-923, September.
    15. Markku Lanne & Henri Nyberg, 2016. "Generalized Forecast Error Variance Decomposition for Linear and Nonlinear Multivariate Models," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Department of Economics, University of Oxford, vol. 78(4), pages 595-603, August.
    16. El Hedi Arouri, Mohamed & Jouini, Jamel & Nguyen, Duc Khuong, 2011. "Volatility spillovers between oil prices and stock sector returns: Implications for portfolio management," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 30(7), pages 1387-1405.
    17. Jammazi, Rania, 2012. "Oil shock transmission to stock market returns: Wavelet-multivariate Markov switching GARCH approach," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 37(1), pages 430-454.
    18. Klößner, Stefan & Sekkel, Rodrigo, 2014. "International spillovers of policy uncertainty," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 124(3), pages 508-512.
    19. Rua, António & Nunes, Luís C., 2009. "International comovement of stock market returns: A wavelet analysis," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 16(4), pages 632-639, September.
    20. Belke, Ansgar & Dubova, Irina, 2018. "International spillovers in global asset markets," Economic Systems, Elsevier, vol. 42(1), pages 3-17.
    21. Syriopoulos, Theodore & Makram, Beljid & Boubaker, Adel, 2015. "Stock market volatility spillovers and portfolio hedging: BRICS and the financial crisis," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 39(C), pages 7-18.
    22. Jonathan A. Batten & Cetin Ciner & Brian M. Lucey, 2015. "Which precious metals spill over on which, when and why? Some evidence," Applied Economics Letters, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 22(6), pages 466-473, April.
    23. Tiwari, Aviral Kumar & Cunado, Juncal & Gupta, Rangan & Wohar, Mark E., 2018. "Volatility spillovers across global asset classes: Evidence from time and frequency domains," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 194-202.
    24. Jean†Edouard Colliard & Peter Hoffmann, 2017. "Financial Transaction Taxes, Market Composition, and Liquidity," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 72(6), pages 2685-2716, December.
    25. Hattori, Masazumi & Shim, Ilhyock & Sugihara, Yoshihiko, 2016. "Volatility Contagion across the Equity Markets of Developed and Emerging Market Economies," ADBI Working Papers 590, Asian Development Bank Institute.
    26. Koop, Gary & Pesaran, M. Hashem & Potter, Simon M., 1996. "Impulse response analysis in nonlinear multivariate models," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 74(1), pages 119-147, September.
    27. Francis X. Diebold & Kamil Yilmaz, 2009. "Measuring Financial Asset Return and Volatility Spillovers, with Application to Global Equity Markets," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 119(534), pages 158-171, January.
    28. Awartani, Basel & Maghyereh, Aktham Issa, 2013. "Dynamic spillovers between oil and stock markets in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 36(C), pages 28-42.
    29. Pesaran, H. Hashem & Shin, Yongcheol, 1998. "Generalized impulse response analysis in linear multivariate models," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 58(1), pages 17-29, January.
    30. Kang, Sang Hoon & Lee, Jang Woo, 2019. "The network connectedness of volatility spillovers across global futures markets," Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, Elsevier, vol. 526(C).
    31. Basher, Syed Abul & Sadorsky, Perry, 2016. "Hedging emerging market stock prices with oil, gold, VIX, and bonds: A comparison between DCC, ADCC and GO-GARCH," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 54(C), pages 235-247.
    32. Phong Nguyen & Wei-han Liu, 2017. "Time-Varying Linkage of Possible Safe Haven Assets: A Cross-Market and Cross-asset Analysis," International Review of Finance, International Review of Finance Ltd., vol. 17(1), pages 43-76, March.
    33. Anaya, Pablo & Hachula, Michael & Offermanns, Christian J., 2017. "Spillovers of U.S. unconventional monetary policy to emerging markets: The role of capital flows," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 73(PB), pages 275-295.
    34. Mensi, Walid & Hammoudeh, Shawkat & Kang, Sang Hoon, 2015. "Precious metals, cereal, oil and stock market linkages and portfolio risk management: Evidence from Saudi Arabia," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 51(C), pages 340-358.
    35. Mr. Jorge A Chan-Lau, 2017. "Variance Decomposition Networks: Potential Pitfalls and a Simple Solution," IMF Working Papers 2017/107, International Monetary Fund.
    36. Ferrer, Román & Shahzad, Syed Jawad Hussain & López, Raquel & Jareño, Francisco, 2018. "Time and frequency dynamics of connectedness between renewable energy stocks and crude oil prices," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 1-20.
    37. BenSaïda, Ahmed & Litimi, Houda & Abdallah, Oussama, 2018. "Volatility spillover shifts in global financial markets," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 343-353.
    38. Sadorsky, Perry, 2014. "Modeling volatility and correlations between emerging market stock prices and the prices of copper, oil and wheat," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 43(C), pages 72-81.
    39. Mr. Jochen R. Andritzky, 2012. "Government Bonds and their Investors: What Are the Facts and Do they Matter?," IMF Working Papers 2012/158, International Monetary Fund.
    40. Khalfaoui, R. & Boutahar, M. & Boubaker, H., 2015. "Analyzing volatility spillovers and hedging between oil and stock markets: Evidence from wavelet analysis," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 540-549.
    41. Zhou, Xiangyi & Zhang, Weijin & Zhang, Jie, 2012. "Volatility spillovers between the Chinese and world equity markets," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 20(2), pages 247-270.
    42. Khalifa, Ahmed A.A. & Hammoudeh, Shawkat & Otranto, Edoardo, 2014. "Extracting portfolio management strategies from volatility transmission models in regime-changing environments: Evidence from GCC and global markets," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 365-374.
    43. Antonakakis, Nikolaos & Cunado, Juncal & Filis, George & Gabauer, David & Perez de Gracia, Fernando, 2018. "Oil volatility, oil and gas firms and portfolio diversification," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 499-515.
    44. Sang Hoon Kang & Ron McIver & Seong-Min Yoon, 2016. "Modeling Time-Varying Correlations in Volatility Between BRICS and Commodity Markets," Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 52(7), pages 1698-1723, July.
    45. Klotz, Philipp & Lin, Tsoyu Calvin & Hsu, Shih-Hsun, 2014. "Global commodity prices, economic activity and monetary policy: The relevance of China," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 1-9.
    46. Mr. Ashvin Ahuja & Mr. Malhar S Nabar, 2012. "Investment-Led Growth in China: Global Spillovers," IMF Working Papers 2012/267, International Monetary Fund.
    47. Barunik, Jozef & Krehlik, Tomas & Vacha, Lukas, 2016. "Modeling and forecasting exchange rate volatility in time-frequency domain," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 251(1), pages 329-340.
    48. Diebold, Francis X. & Yilmaz, Kamil, 2015. "Financial and Macroeconomic Connectedness: A Network Approach to Measurement and Monitoring," OUP Catalogue, Oxford University Press, number 9780199338306.
    49. Antonakakis, Nikolaos & Kizys, Renatas, 2015. "Dynamic spillovers between commodity and currency markets," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 303-319.
    50. Chan, Kam Fong & Treepongkaruna, Sirimon & Brooks, Robert & Gray, Stephen, 2011. "Asset market linkages: Evidence from financial, commodity and real estate assets," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 35(6), pages 1415-1426, June.
    51. Robert Dixon & Zhichao Zhang & Yang Dai, 2016. "Exchange Rate Flexibility in China: Measurement, Regime Shifts and Driving Forces of Change," Review of International Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 24(5), pages 875-892, November.
    52. Ramsey, J.B., 2002. "Wavelets in Economics and Finance: Past and Future," Working Papers 02-02, C.V. Starr Center for Applied Economics, New York University.
    53. Bredin, Don & Conlon, Thomas & Potì, Valerio, 2015. "Does gold glitter in the long-run? Gold as a hedge and safe haven across time and investment horizon," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 320-328.
    54. Daskalaki, Charoula & Skiadopoulos, George, 2011. "Should investors include commodities in their portfolios after all? New evidence," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 35(10), pages 2606-2626, October.
    55. Gencay, Ramazan & Selcuk, Faruk & Whitcher, Brandon, 2005. "Multiscale systematic risk," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 24(1), pages 55-70, February.
    56. Hui-Chu Shu & Jung-Hsien Chang, 2019. "Spillovers of volatility index: evidence from U.S., European, and Asian stock markets," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 51(19), pages 2070-2083, April.
    57. Diebold, Francis X. & Yilmaz, Kamil, 2012. "Better to give than to receive: Predictive directional measurement of volatility spillovers," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 28(1), pages 57-66.
    58. Kroner, Kenneth F & Ng, Victor K, 1998. "Modeling Asymmetric Comovements of Asset Returns," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 11(4), pages 817-844.
    59. Wang, Tian & Wang, Cangfeng, 2019. "The spillover effects of China's industrial growth on price changes of base metal," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 375-384.
    60. Patrick M. Crowley, 2007. "A Guide To Wavelets For Economists," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 21(2), pages 207-267, April.
    61. Zhang, Bing & Wang, Peijie, 2014. "Return and volatility spillovers between china and world oil markets," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 413-420.
    62. Wang, Gang-Jin & Xie, Chi & Jiang, Zhi-Qiang & Eugene Stanley, H., 2016. "Who are the net senders and recipients of volatility spillovers in China’s financial markets?," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 18(C), pages 255-262.
    63. Dean, Warren G. & Faff, Robert W. & Loudon, Geoffrey F., 2010. "Asymmetry in return and volatility spillover between equity and bond markets in Australia," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 18(3), pages 272-289, June.
    64. Mensi, Walid & Boubaker, Ferihane Zaraa & Al-Yahyaee, Khamis Hamed & Kang, Sang Hoon, 2018. "Dynamic volatility spillovers and connectedness between global, regional, and GIPSI stock markets," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 25(C), pages 230-238.
    65. Kang, Sang Hoon & McIver, Ron & Yoon, Seong-Min, 2017. "Dynamic spillover effects among crude oil, precious metal, and agricultural commodity futures markets," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 19-32.
    66. Zhang, Dayong, 2017. "Oil shocks and stock markets revisited: Measuring connectedness from a global perspective," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 323-333.
    67. Kim, Sangbae & In, Francis, 2007. "On the relationship between changes in stock prices and bond yields in the G7 countries: Wavelet analysis," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 17(2), pages 167-179, April.
    68. Nandha, Mohan & Faff, Robert, 2008. "Does oil move equity prices? A global view," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(3), pages 986-997, May.
    69. Ramsey James B., 2002. "Wavelets in Economics and Finance: Past and Future," Studies in Nonlinear Dynamics & Econometrics, De Gruyter, vol. 6(3), pages 1-29, November.
    70. Mr. Tamim Bayoumi & Mr. Trung T Bui, 2012. "Global Bonding: Do U.S. Bond and Equity Spillovers Dominate Global Financial Markets?," IMF Working Papers 2012/298, International Monetary Fund.
    71. Maghyereh, Aktham I. & Awartani, Basel & Tziogkidis, Panagiotis, 2017. "Volatility spillovers and cross-hedging between gold, oil and equities: Evidence from the Gulf Cooperation Council countries," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 440-453.
    72. Davidson, Sinclair & Faff, Robert & Hillier, David, 2003. "Gold factor exposures in international asset pricing," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 13(3), pages 271-289, July.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Maitra, Debasish & Chandra, Saurabh & Dash, Saumya Ranjan, 2020. "Liner shipping industry and oil price volatility: Dynamic connectedness and portfolio diversification," Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, Elsevier, vol. 138(C).
    2. Guhathakurta, Kousik & Dash, Saumya Ranjan & Maitra, Debasish, 2020. "Period specific volatility spillover based connectedness between oil and other commodity prices and their portfolio implications," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(C).
    3. Kang, Sanghoon & Hernandez, Jose Arreola & Sadorsky, Perry & McIver, Ronald, 2021. "Frequency spillovers, connectedness, and the hedging effectiveness of oil and gold for US sector ETFs," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 99(C).
    4. Kang, Sang Hoon & McIver, Ron & Yoon, Seong-Min, 2017. "Dynamic spillover effects among crude oil, precious metal, and agricultural commodity futures markets," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 19-32.
    5. Evrim Mandacı, Pınar & Cagli, Efe Çaglar & Taşkın, Dilvin, 2020. "Dynamic connectedness and portfolio strategies: Energy and metal markets," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 68(C).
    6. Antonakakis, Nikolaos & Cunado, Juncal & Filis, George & Gabauer, David & Perez de Gracia, Fernando, 2018. "Oil volatility, oil and gas firms and portfolio diversification," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 499-515.
    7. Hachicha, Néjib & Ben Amar, Amine & Ben Slimane, Ikrame & Bellalah, Makram & Prigent, Jean-Luc, 2022. "Dynamic connectedness and optimal hedging strategy among commodities and financial indices," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 83(C).
    8. Xie He & Tetsuya Takiguchi & Tadahiro Nakajima & Shigeyuki Hamori, 2020. "Spillover effects between energies, gold, and stock: the United States versus China," Energy & Environment, , vol. 31(8), pages 1416-1447, December.
    9. Silva, Thiago Christiano & Braz, Tercio & Tabak, Benjamin Miranda, 2024. "Mapping the landscape of energy markets research: A bibliometric analysis and predictive assessment using machine learning," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 136(C).
    10. Ghaemi Asl, Mahdi & Adekoya, Oluwasegun Babatunde & Rashidi, Muhammad Mahdi & Ghasemi Doudkanlou, Mohammad & Dolatabadi, Ali, 2022. "Forecast of Bayesian-based dynamic connectedness between oil market and Islamic stock indices of Islamic oil-exporting countries: Application of the cascade-forward backpropagation network," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 77(C).
    11. Xu, Weiju & Ma, Feng & Chen, Wang & Zhang, Bing, 2019. "Asymmetric volatility spillovers between oil and stock markets: Evidence from China and the United States," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 80(C), pages 310-320.
    12. Balcilar, Mehmet & Ozdemir, Zeynel Abidin & Ozdemir, Huseyin & Wohar, Mark E., 2020. "Fed’s unconventional monetary policy and risk spillover in the US financial markets," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 42-52.
    13. Elsayed, Ahmed H. & Nasreen, Samia & Tiwari, Aviral Kumar, 2020. "Time-varying co-movements between energy market and global financial markets: Implication for portfolio diversification and hedging strategies," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 90(C).
    14. Dahl, Roy Endré & Jonsson, Erlendur, 2018. "Volatility spillover in seafood markets," Journal of Commodity Markets, Elsevier, vol. 12(C), pages 44-59.
    15. Restrepo, Natalia & Uribe, Jorge M. & Manotas, Diego, 2018. "Financial risk network architecture of energy firms," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 215(C), pages 630-642.
    16. Iwanicz-Drozdowska, Małgorzata & Rogowicz, Karol & Kurowski, Łukasz & Smaga, Paweł, 2021. "Two decades of contagion effect on stock markets: Which events are more contagious?," Journal of Financial Stability, Elsevier, vol. 55(C).
    17. Tan, Xueping & Sirichand, Kavita & Vivian, Andrew & Wang, Xinyu, 2020. "How connected is the carbon market to energy and financial markets? A systematic analysis of spillovers and dynamics," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 90(C).
    18. Tiwari, Aviral Kumar & Nasreen, Samia & Shahbaz, Muhammad & Hammoudeh, Shawkat, 2020. "Time-frequency causality and connectedness between international prices of energy, food, industry, agriculture and metals," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(C).
    19. Maitra, Debasish & Guhathakurta, Kousik & Kang, Sang Hoon, 2021. "The good, the bad and the ugly relation between oil and commodities: An analysis of asymmetric volatility connectedness and portfolio implications," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    20. Antonakakis, Nikolaos & Cunado, Juncal & Filis, George & Gabauer, David & de Gracia, Fernando Perez, 2023. "Dynamic connectedness among the implied volatilities of oil prices and financial assets: New evidence of the COVID-19 pandemic," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 83(C), pages 114-123.

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:pacfin:v:58:y:2019:i:c:s0927538x18305912. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/pacfin .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.