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Tokenism in policing: An empirical test of Kanter's hypothesis

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  • Gustafson, Joseph L.

Abstract

This study presented the first quantitative test of tokenism theory (Kanter, 1977) in a municipal policing context with data collected from a large sample of Baltimore police officers (Gershon, 1999). In bivariate and multivariate analyses, the effects of gender and race status and their interaction on three dependent variables capturing the central dynamics of tokenism (visibility/performance pressure, contrast/social isolation, and assimilation/role encapsulation) were explored. The study found weak to moderate support for the theory, but no evidence of a distinct "double token" interaction effect between race and gender statuses. By and large, race status alone predicted the greatest tokenism consequences. Limitations and future directions for tokenism research in policing are discussed.

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  • Gustafson, Joseph L., 2008. "Tokenism in policing: An empirical test of Kanter's hypothesis," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 36(1), pages 1-10, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:jcjust:v:36:y::i:1:p:1-10
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    1. He, Ni & Zhao, Jihong & Ren, Ling, 2005. "Do race and gender matter in police stress? A preliminary assessment of the interactive effects," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 33(6), pages 535-547.
    2. Evans, Barry J. & Coman, Greg J. & Stanley, Robb O., 1992. "The police personality: Type A behavior and trait anxiety," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 20(5), pages 429-441.
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    1. Stichman, Amy J. & Hassell, Kimberly D. & Archbold, Carol A., 2010. "Strength in numbers? A test of Kanter's theory of tokenism," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 38(4), pages 633-639, July.
    2. Benan KURT YILMAZ & Olca SÜRGEVİL DALKILIÇ, 2020. "Cinsiyete Dayalı Tokenizm: Kadın Egemen ve Erkek Egemen Meslekler Üzerinde Nitel Bir Araştırma," Istanbul Management Journal, Istanbul University Business School, vol. 0(88), pages 85-125, June.
    3. Marcus J. Fila & Justin Purl & Seulki (Rachel) Jang, 2022. "Demands, Resources, Well-Being and Strain: Meta-Analyzing Moderator Effects of Workforce Racial Composition," Applied Research in Quality of Life, Springer;International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies, vol. 17(4), pages 2163-2190, August.
    4. Beate Elstad & Gro Ladegard, 2012. "Women on corporate boards: key influencers or tokens?," Journal of Management & Governance, Springer;Accademia Italiana di Economia Aziendale (AIDEA), vol. 16(4), pages 595-615, November.
    5. Corniciuc, Iarina, 2021. "Does boardroom diversity impact the financial performance of FTSE 350 firms?," Warwick-Monash Economics Student Papers 07, Warwick Monash Economics Student Papers.
    6. Briggs, Elten & Jaramillo, Fernando & Weeks, William A., 2012. "Perceived barriers to career advancement and organizational commitment in sales," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 65(7), pages 937-943.
    7. Lundman, Richard J., 2009. "Officer gender and traffic ticket decisions: Police blue or women too?," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 37(4), pages 342-352, July.
    8. Pipiet Larasatie & Dagmar Karisch-Gierer & Alice Ludvig, 2022. "Women’s Woodland Owner Network: A Comparative Case Study of Oregon (the United States) and Austria," Land, MDPI, vol. 11(10), pages 1-14, September.

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