IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/enepol/v162y2022ics0301421522000374.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Current relationship between coal consumption and the economic development and China's future carbon mitigation policies

Author

Listed:
  • Jia, Zhijie
  • Wen, Shiyan
  • Sun, Zao

Abstract

China is the largest emitter worldwide, and coal consumption contributes the most. So the key to emission mitigation is to reduce coal consumption. The paper applies panel data during 1998–2017 to analyze the relationship between coal consumption and economic development. The results indicate that the relationship is now weakening, and find evidence of inter-provincial relocation of the coal-intensive industries. The reduction of the marginal contribution provides the possibility for China's economic emission mitigation. Then, the paper applies a dynamic recursive computable general equilibrium model to simulate carbon mitigation policies during 2017–2030 at the same emission reduction level, including coal capacity cut, Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), carbon tax with ETS, and resource tax. The results show that different policies have specific advantages: coal capacity cut reduces coal consumption the most; ETS significantly improves the share of renewable energy; carbon tax with ETS could optimize economic structure; resource tax is good at protecting the economic aggregate. Based on these conclusions, specific policy implications are proposed, such as measurements of increasing energy cost and collaborative regional environmental regulation.

Suggested Citation

  • Jia, Zhijie & Wen, Shiyan & Sun, Zao, 2022. "Current relationship between coal consumption and the economic development and China's future carbon mitigation policies," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 162(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:enepol:v:162:y:2022:i:c:s0301421522000374
    DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2022.112812
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421522000374
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.112812?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Demailly, Damien & Quirion, Philippe, 2008. "European Emission Trading Scheme and competitiveness: A case study on the iron and steel industry," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(4), pages 2009-2027, July.
    2. Kevin A. Hassett & Aparna Mathur & Gilbert E. Metcalf, 2009. "The Incidence of a U.S. Carbon Tax: A Lifetime and Regional Analysis," The Energy Journal, International Association for Energy Economics, vol. 0(Number 2), pages 155-178.
    3. Wissema, Wiepke & Dellink, Rob, 2007. "AGE analysis of the impact of a carbon energy tax on the Irish economy," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 61(4), pages 671-683, March.
    4. Thepkhun, Panida & Limmeechokchai, Bundit & Fujimori, Shinichiro & Masui, Toshihiko & Shrestha, Ram M., 2013. "Thailand's Low-Carbon Scenario 2050: The AIM/CGE analyses of CO2 mitigation measures," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 561-572.
    5. Bloch, Harry & Rafiq, Shuddhasattwa & Salim, Ruhul, 2012. "Coal consumption, CO2 emission and economic growth in China: Empirical evidence and policy responses," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(2), pages 518-528.
    6. Li, Raymond & Leung, Guy C.K., 2012. "Coal consumption and economic growth in China," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 438-443.
    7. Keith Head & Thierry Mayer, 2021. "The United States of Europe: A Gravity Model Evaluation of the Four Freedoms," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 35(2), pages 23-48, Spring.
    8. Lu, Chuanyi & Tong, Qing & Liu, Xuemei, 2010. "The impacts of carbon tax and complementary policies on Chinese economy," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(11), pages 7278-7285, November.
    9. Kerui Du & Shuai Shao & Zheming Yan, 2021. "Urban Residential Energy Demand and Rebound Effect in China: A Stochastic Energy Demand Frontier Approach," The Energy Journal, , vol. 42(4), pages 175-194, July.
    10. Wang, Xiaofei & Liu, Chuangeng & Chen, Shaojie & Chen, Lei & Li, Ke & Liu, Na, 2020. "Impact of coal sector’s de-capacity policy on coal price," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 265(C).
    11. Galinato, Gregmar I. & Yoder, Jonathan K., 2010. "An integrated tax-subsidy policy for carbon emission reduction," Resource and Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 32(3), pages 310-326, August.
    12. Boqiang Lin & Zhijie Jia, 2020. "Can Carbon Tax Complement Emission Trading Scheme? The Impact Of Carbon Tax On Economy, Energy And Environment In China," Climate Change Economics (CCE), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 11(03), pages 1-29, August.
    13. Hoberg, George & Peterson St-Laurent, Guillaume & Schittecatte, Gabrielle & Dymond, Caren C., 2016. "Forest carbon mitigation policy: A policy gap analysis for British Columbia," Forest Policy and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 73-82.
    14. Cao, Jing & Ho, Mun S. & Jorgenson, Dale W. & Nielsen, Chris P., 2019. "China's emissions trading system and an ETS-carbon tax hybrid," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 81(C), pages 741-753.
    15. Zhang, Zengkai & Guo, Ju'e & Qian, Dong & Xue, Yong & Cai, Luping, 2013. "Effects and mechanism of influence of China's resource tax reform: A regional perspective," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 36(C), pages 676-685.
    16. Saboori, Behnaz & Sulaiman, Jamalludin, 2013. "Environmental degradation, economic growth and energy consumption: Evidence of the environmental Kuznets curve in Malaysia," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 892-905.
    17. Freeman, Rebecca & Lewis, John, 2021. "Gravity model estimates of the spatial determinants of trade, migration, and trade-and-migration policies," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 204(C).
    18. Stefano Carattini & Steffen Kallbekken & Anton Orlov, 2019. "How to win public support for a global carbon tax," Nature, Nature, vol. 565(7739), pages 289-291, January.
    19. Jenny Sumner & Lori Bird & Hillary Dobos, 2011. "Carbon taxes: a review of experience and policy design considerations," Climate Policy, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 11(2), pages 922-943, March.
    20. Leng, Zhihui & Shuai, Jing & Sun, Han & Shi, Zhiyao & Wang, Zihan, 2020. "Do China's wind energy products have potentials for trade with the “Belt and Road” countries? -- A gravity model approach," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 137(C).
    21. Bristow, Abigail L. & Wardman, Mark & Zanni, Alberto M. & Chintakayala, Phani K., 2010. "Public acceptability of personal carbon trading and carbon tax," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(9), pages 1824-1837, July.
    22. Chiu, Fan-Ping & Kuo, Hsiao-I. & Chen, Chi-Chung & Hsu, Chia-Sheng, 2015. "The energy price equivalence of carbon taxes and emissions trading—Theory and evidence," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 160(C), pages 164-171.
    23. Zhou, Shan & Solomon, Barry D., 2020. "Do renewable portfolio standards in the United States stunt renewable electricity development beyond mandatory targets?," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 140(C).
    24. Jia, Zhijie & Lin, Boqiang, 2021. "How to achieve the first step of the carbon-neutrality 2060 target in China: The coal substitution perspective," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 233(C).
    25. James M. Poterba, 1991. "Tax Policy to Combat Global Warming: On Designing a Carbon Tax," NBER Working Papers 3649, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    26. Lin, Boqiang & Jia, Zhijie, 2019. "Impacts of carbon price level in carbon emission trading market," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 239(C), pages 157-170.
    27. Shuai Shao & Zhigao Hu & Jianhua Cao & Lili Yang & Dabo Guan, 2020. "Environmental Regulation and Enterprise Innovation: A Review," Business Strategy and the Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 29(3), pages 1465-1478, March.
    28. Hao, Yu & Liu, Yiming & Weng, Jia-Hsi & Gao, Yixuan, 2016. "Does the Environmental Kuznets Curve for coal consumption in China exist? New evidence from spatial econometric analysis," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 114(C), pages 1214-1223.
    29. Sam Meng & Mahinda Siriwardana & Judith McNeill, 2013. "The Environmental and Economic Impact of the Carbon Tax in Australia," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 54(3), pages 313-332, March.
    30. Chai, Jian & Du, Mengfan & Liang, Ting & Sun, Xiaojie Christine & Yu, Ji & Zhang, Zhe George, 2019. "Coal consumption in China: How to bend down the curve?," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 80(C), pages 38-47.
    31. de Frutos, Pablo & Rodriguez-Prado, Beatriz & Latorre, Joaquín & Martinez-Peña, Fernando, 2019. "A Gravity Model to Explain Flows of Wild Edible Mushroom Picking. A Panel Data Analysis," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 156(C), pages 164-173.
    32. Jia, Zhijie & Lin, Boqiang, 2020. "Rethinking the choice of carbon tax and carbon trading in China," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 159(C).
    33. Apergis, Nicholas & Payne, James E., 2010. "The causal dynamics between coal consumption and growth: Evidence from emerging market economies," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 87(6), pages 1972-1977, June.
    34. Hoel, Michael, 1996. "Should a carbon tax be differentiated across sectors?," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 59(1), pages 17-32, January.
    35. Donald B. Marron & Eric J. Toder, 2014. "Tax Policy Issues in Designing a Carbon Tax," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 104(5), pages 563-568, May.
    36. Ur Rahman, Zia & Iqbal Khattak, Shoukat & Ahmad, Manzoor & Khan, Anwar, 2020. "A disaggregated-level analysis of the relationship among energy production, energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence from China," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 194(C).
    37. Lutsey, Nicholas & Sperling, Daniel, 2008. "America's bottom-up climate change mitigation policy," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 36(2), pages 673-685, February.
    38. Wei, Wendong & Cai, Wenqiu & Guo, Yi & Bai, Caiquan & Yang, Luzhen, 2020. "Decoupling relationship between energy consumption and economic growth in China's provinces from the perspective of resource security," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 68(C).
    39. Al-Mulali, Usama & Saboori, Behnaz & Ozturk, Ilhan, 2015. "Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in Vietnam," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 123-131.
    40. Lin, Boqiang & Jia, Zhijie, 2019. "How does tax system on energy industries affect energy demand, CO2 emissions, and economy in China?," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    41. Narayan, Paresh Kumar & Narayan, Seema, 2010. "Carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth: Panel data evidence from developing countries," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 661-666, January.
    42. Can Wang & Hai Huang & Wenjia Cai & Mengzhen Zhao & Jin Li & Shihui Zhang & Yuan Liu, 2020. "Economic Impacts Of Climate Change And Air Pollution In China Through Health And Labor Supply Perspective: An Integrated Assessment Model Analysis," Climate Change Economics (CCE), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 11(03), pages 1-28, August.
    43. Hu, Yucai & Ren, Shenggang & Wang, Yangjie & Chen, Xiaohong, 2020. "Can carbon emission trading scheme achieve energy conservation and emission reduction? Evidence from the industrial sector in China," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(C).
    44. Yoo, Seung-Hoon, 2006. "Causal relationship between coal consumption and economic growth in Korea," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 83(11), pages 1181-1189, November.
    45. Zhihua Tian & Yanfang Tian & Yang Chen & Shuai Shao, 2020. "The economic consequences of environmental regulation in China: From a perspective of the environmental protection admonishing talk policy," Business Strategy and the Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 29(4), pages 1723-1733, May.
    46. Lutsey, Nicholas P. & Sperling, Dan, 2008. "America's Bottom-Up Climate Change Mitigation Policy," Institute of Transportation Studies, Working Paper Series qt8jj755d4, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis.
    47. Luzzati, T. & Orsini, M., 2009. "Investigating the energy-environmental Kuznets curve," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 34(3), pages 291-300.
    48. Boqiang Lin, & Wang, Miao, 2019. "Possibilities of decoupling for China’s energy consumption from economic growth: A temporal-spatial analysis," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 185(C), pages 951-960.
    49. Easwaran Narassimhan & Kelly S. Gallagher & Stefan Koester & Julio Rivera Alejo, 2018. "Carbon pricing in practice: a review of existing emissions trading systems," Climate Policy, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 18(8), pages 967-991, September.
    50. Sugandha D. Tuladhar, Sebastian Mankowski, and Paul Bernstein, 2014. "Interaction Effects of Market-Based and Command-and-Control Policies," The Energy Journal, International Association for Energy Economics, vol. 0(Special I).
    51. Yoo, S.-H., 2006. "The causal relationship between electricity consumption and economic growth in the ASEAN countries," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 34(18), pages 3573-3582, December.
    52. Ulph, Alistair & Ulph, David, 1994. "The Optimal Time Path of a Carbon Tax," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 46(0), pages 857-868, Supplemen.
    53. Saint Akadiri, Seyi & Alola, Andrew Adewale & Akadiri, Ada Chigozie & Alola, Uju Violet, 2019. "Renewable energy consumption in EU-28 countries: Policy toward pollution mitigation and economic sustainability," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 132(C), pages 803-810.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Jia, Zhijie & Wen, Shiyan & Wang, Yao, 2023. "Power coming from the sky: Economic benefits of inter-regional power transmission in China," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 119(C).
    2. Yao Wang & Qiang Yang & Xuenan Wu & Ruichen Wang & Tilei Gao & Yuntong Liu, 2023. "A Study of Trends in Low-Energy Development Patterns in China: A Data-Driven Approach," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(13), pages 1-18, June.
    3. Abudureheman, Maliyamu & Jiang, Qingzhe & Dong, Xiucheng & Dong, Cong, 2022. "Spatial effects of dynamic comprehensive energy efficiency on CO2 reduction in China," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 166(C).
    4. Silva, Thiago Christiano & Braz, Tercio & Tabak, Benjamin Miranda, 2024. "Mapping the landscape of energy markets research: A bibliometric analysis and predictive assessment using machine learning," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 136(C).
    5. Bin Xu, 2022. "How to Efficiently Reduce the Carbon Intensity of the Heavy Industry in China? Using Quantile Regression Approach," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(19), pages 1-24, October.
    6. Jia, Zhijie & Lin, Boqiang, 2023. "Primary fossil energy cost and price regulation in energy processing sectors---the perspective of price regulation market with Chinese characteristics," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 83(C).
    7. Lintian Miao & Zhonghui Duan & Yucheng Xia & Rongjun Du & Tingting Lv & Xueyang Sun, 2022. "Analysis of Factors Influencing Mining Damage Based on Engineering Detection and Machine Learning," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(15), pages 1-23, August.
    8. Jia, Zhijie & Lin, Boqiang, 2022. "Is the rebound effect useless? A case study on the technological progress of the power industry," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 248(C).
    9. Bai, Rui & Lin, Boqiang, 2024. "Green finance and green innovation: Theoretical analysis based on game theory and empirical evidence from China," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 89(PA), pages 760-774.
    10. Zhao, Jiqiang & Wu, Xianhua & Guo, Ji & Gao, Chao, 2022. "Allocation of SO2 emission rights in city agglomerations considering cross-border transmission of pollutants: A new network DEA model," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 325(C).
    11. Zhang, Guidong & Wang, Jianlong & Liu, Yong, 2024. "“Carbon” suppresses “energy” - How does carbon emission right trading policy alleviate the energy trilemma?," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 307(C).
    12. Xi, Xian & Tao, Yifan & Jiang, Shuguang & Yin, Chenchen, 2023. "Study on the formation mechanism and mechanical properties of composite foam slurry material for mine plugging," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 281(C).
    13. Mashitoh Yaacob & Winnie Wing-Mui So & Noriko Iizuka, 2022. "Exploring Community Perceptions of Climate Change Issues in Peninsular Malaysia," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(13), pages 1-23, June.
    14. Ziwei Yan & Chunying Cui, 2022. "How Natural Gas Infrastructure Affects Carbon Emission Indicators in Guangdong Province?," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(13), pages 1-26, July.
    15. Zaghdoudi, Taha & Tissaoui, Kais & Maaloul, Mohamed Hédi & Bahou, Younès & Kammoun, Niazi, 2023. "Asymmetric connectedness between oil price, coal and renewable energy consumption in China: Evidence from Fourier NARDL approach," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 285(C).
    16. Duo, Zhang & Xuexue, Liu & Hu, Wen & Shoushi, Zhang & Hongquan, Wang & Yi, Sun & Hao, Feng, 2024. "Effect of nucleating agents on fire prevention of dry ice from compound inert gas," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 286(C).
    17. Jia, Zhijie & Lin, Boqiang, 2022. "CEEEA2.0 model: A dynamic CGE model for energy-environment-economy analysis with available data and code," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 112(C).

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Shahbaz, Muhammad & Shafiullah, Muhammad & Khalid, Usman & Song, Malin, 2020. "A nonparametric analysis of energy environmental Kuznets Curve in Chinese Provinces," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 89(C).
    2. Adewuyi, Adeolu O. & Awodumi, Olabanji B., 2017. "Renewable and non-renewable energy-growth-emissions linkages: Review of emerging trends with policy implications," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 275-291.
    3. Shahbaz, Muhammad & Farhani, Sahbi & Ozturk, Ilhan, 2013. "Coal Consumption, Industrial Production and CO2 Emissions in China and India," MPRA Paper 50618, University Library of Munich, Germany, revised 12 Oct 2013.
    4. Taeyoung Jin & Jinsoo Kim, 2018. "Coal Consumption and Economic Growth: Panel Cointegration and Causality Evidence from OECD and Non-OECD Countries," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(3), pages 1-15, March.
    5. Bhattacharya, Mita & Rafiq, Shuddhasattwa & Bhattacharya, Sankar, 2015. "The role of technology on the dynamics of coal consumption–economic growth: New evidence from China," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 154(C), pages 686-695.
    6. Wang, Qiang & Li, Rongrong, 2015. "Cheaper oil: A turning point in Paris climate talk?," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 52(C), pages 1186-1192.
    7. Muhammad Yousaf Raza & Muhammad Tauqir Sultan Shah, 2020. "Analysis of coal-related energy consumption in Pakistan: an alternative energy resource to fuel economic development," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 22(7), pages 6149-6170, October.
    8. Yvonne Gwenhure & Nicholas Odhiambo, 2015. "Energy consumption and growth: a review of international empirical literature," ECONOMICS AND POLICY OF ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT, FrancoAngeli Editore, vol. 2015(3), pages 47-70.
    9. Dorothée Charlier & Mouez Fodha & Djamel Kirat, 2023. "Residential CO2 Emissions in Europe and Carbon Taxation: A Country-Level Assessment," The Energy Journal, , vol. 44(5), pages 187-206, September.
    10. Qiao, Hui & Chen, Siyu & Dong, Xiucheng & Dong, Kangyin, 2019. "Has China's coal consumption actually reached its peak? National and regional analysis considering cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    11. Yildirim, Ertugrul & Aslan, Alper & Ozturk, Ilhan, 2012. "Coal consumption and industrial production nexus in USA: Cointegration with two unknown structural breaks and causality approaches," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 16(8), pages 6123-6127.
    12. Chu, Amanda M.Y. & Lv, Zhihui & Wagner, Niklas F. & Wong, Wing-Keung, 2020. "Linear and nonlinear growth determinants: The case of Mongolia and its connection to China," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 43(C).
    13. Hao, Yu & Zhang, Zong-Yong & Liao, Hua & Wei, Yi-Ming, 2015. "China’s farewell to coal: A forecast of coal consumption through 2020," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 86(C), pages 444-455.
    14. Wen, Shiyan & Jia, Zhijie, 2022. "The energy, environment and economy impact of coal resource tax, renewable investment, and total factor productivity growth," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 77(C).
    15. Nicholas M Odhiambo, 2016. "Coal consumption and economic growth in South Africa: An empirical investigation," Energy & Environment, , vol. 27(2), pages 215-226, March.
    16. Kurniawan, Robi & Managi, Shunsuke, 2018. "Coal consumption, urbanization, and trade openness linkage in Indonesia," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 121(C), pages 576-583.
    17. Chen, Zhongfei & Zhang, Xiao & Chen, Fanglin, 2021. "Do carbon emission trading schemes stimulate green innovation in enterprises? Evidence from China," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    18. Oguz Ocal & Ilhan Ozturk & Alper Aslan, 2013. "Coal Consumption and Economic Growth in Turkey," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 3(2), pages 193-198.
    19. Zhang, Qianxue & Liao, Hua & Hao, Yu, 2018. "Does one path fit all? An empirical study on the relationship between energy consumption and economic development for individual Chinese provinces," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 150(C), pages 527-543.
    20. Herrerias, M.J. & Joyeux, R. & Girardin, E., 2013. "Short- and long-run causality between energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence across regions in China," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 1483-1492.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:enepol:v:162:y:2022:i:c:s0301421522000374. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.