Governing knowledge and technology: Technological pressure for convergence in EU, California, and China data protection regulation

This study employs a historical comparative methodology to explain the emergence time frame of comprehensive data protection regulations in Europe, the United States, and China. The study marks the beginning of the big data era in 2010 and explains the variation in the emergence of data protection regulations by examining the international problem-solving landscape, societal institutional organization, and individual interactions pressures. The EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) has had a significant impact on the alignment of regulations in other countries and the behavior of the private sector in terms of regulatory compliance. The California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the United States is a response to a growing social movement against corporativism and the abuse of personal data by large companies. The Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL) in China focuses on international data sovereignty and aims to protect the personal information of Chinese citizens from foreign companies and countries. Overall, the data protection case shows that when new technologies emerge, there is a natural tendency for regulatory convergence. The GDPR is an example of a regulatory solution that has been successfully propagated, due to the EU strong institutional reaction to new circumstances and ability to negotiate with all parties to create solutions for complex problems.