Mapping energy use portfolios and household outcomes in Nepal: Insights from farm and household surveys in the Terai and the Mid-hills

Rural energy access remains a critical challenge in developing economies, with profound implications for agricultural productivity, household welfare, and gender dynamics. Nepal's diverse geographical landscape—spanning the plains of Terai to the challenging Mid-hills and mountain regions—presents a unique context for understanding energy poverty and its multifaceted impacts. This study examines the intricate relationships between energy infrastructure, household economic status, and social outcomes in rural Nepalese communities. By investigating electricity access, cooking fuel technologies, and agricultural mechanization, we reveal how energy transitions are not merely technical interventions but complex social processes that reshape household labor, economic opportunities, and gender relations. Our research highlights the significant disparities in energy access between different geographical regions and wealth quintiles. Beyond infrastructure, we explore how energy technologies interact with dietary diversity, women's empowerment, and agricultural productivity. The findings underscore the need for nuanced, context-specific energy policies that consider local socioeconomic and geographical variations.