Migration

This chapter examines the historical and contemporary dynamics of human mobility, highlighting its role in shaping civilizations and responding to changing environmental, social, and political conditions. It explores early hominin migrations, including the movement of Homo erectus out of Africa, and their impact on adaptation, tool use, and social cooperation. The chapter also evaluates the emergence of Homo sapiens, detailing migration routes and patterns, including the Southern and Northern routes, and interactions with Neanderthals and Denisovans. The chapter also addresses the transformative impact of climate change on migration, illustrating how environmental stressors like droughts, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events are driving both internal and international displacements. Case studies from Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Central America demonstrate these pressures. Economic migration is contextualized through theories such as push-pull, neoclassical economics, and network migration, emphasizing global inequalities and structural labour demands. Finally, the chapter analyses the socio-economic implications of migration, including labour market shifts, integration challenges, and political tensions in host nations, underscoring the need for adaptive and inclusive policies to manage the complexities of migration in the twenty-first century.