Historic gardens and parks in Southeast Asia: typologies and common characteristics

Since the Florence Charter was issued by the International Council on Monuments and Sites in 1982, there has been an increasing research interest in the historic gardens of several continents including North America, Europe and Oceania. This has given rise to further research in conservation and management strategies for historic gardens. However, in Southeast Asia historic gardens do not receive as much recognition from scholars when compared with art, architecture and archaeology. This article is a first attempt at listing and analysing the historic gardens of Southeast Asia, focusing on secular gardens dated from the eighth to early twentieth century for which archaeological remains still exist. The analysis aims at identifying typologies and common characteristics among these gardens. This study can provide a database for future research and conservation plans. The list herein consists of sixty-five gardens divided into eight categories by their function: royal pleasure gardens, royal tomb gardens, parks, town squares, garden houses, institution gardens, botanical gardens and zoological gardens. Although the gardens vary in design, they share common characteristics suggesting integration between local culture and external influence.