Sociocultural factors of the late Ming and early Qing Chinese garden landscape, based on philosophies seen in , , and

This study explores garden landscape design philosophies during the Ming–Qing transitional period in China as presented in three different garden design books: Zhangwuzhi (长物志), Yuanye (园冶), and Xianqingouji (闲情偶寄). During this period, the Confucian hierarchical social system fractured as the merchant class began to encroach on high society. In reaction to this change, Zhangwuzhi proposed the ‘elegant’ garden design ideology to maintain the cultural hegemony of the gentry. Reflecting the rising social status of merchants, Yuanye applied this ideology to the gardens of the merchant class. In early Qing, as commoners’ ownership of gardens increased, Xianqingouji optimised the ‘elegant’ ideology, and introduced it as a practical design for ordinary citizens’ gardens. In sum, all three books applied the ‘elegant’ ideology to garden landscapes of different classes in response to the social changes of the time.