Incremental and transformational adaptation to climate change among Indigenous Peoples and local communities: a global review

Around the world, Indigenous Peoples and local communities are exposed to different climate change impacts to which they respond in a myriad of ways. Despite this diversity, there are few comparative studies assessing the magnitude of livelihood system change resulting from Indigenous Peoples’ and local communities’ responses to climate change impacts. Drawing on the analysis of 210 peer-reviewed publications, we analyze 3292 Indigenous Peoples’ and local communities’ responses to climate change impacts, focusing on the magnitude of change they entail. Globally, Indigenous Peoples and local communities are actively adjusting their livelihood activities, most frequently applying incremental responses. However, in half of the case studies, communities fully or partially transform their livelihoods to respond to climate change impacts. Both incremental and transformational responses can have adverse impacts on Indigenous Peoples’ and local communities’ lives. Trends in the magnitude of livelihood changes are similar across climates and livelihoods except for responses in (semi-)arid climates, where most intermediate and transformational responses take place, and for responses in cultivation, where most incremental changes take place. When transformational adaptation occurs, Indigenous Peoples and local communities often not only give up their livelihood strategy, but also their culture and way of living.