Risk Models to Predict Chronic Kidney Disease and Its Progression: A Systematic Review

A systematic review of risk prediction models conducted by Justin Echouffo-Tcheugui and Andre Kengne examines the evidence base for prediction of chronic kidney disease risk and its progression, and suitability of such models for clinical use. Background: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is common, and associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and end-stage renal disease, which are potentially preventable through early identification and treatment of individuals at risk. Although risk factors for occurrence and progression of CKD have been identified, their utility for CKD risk stratification through prediction models remains unclear. We critically assessed risk models to predict CKD and its progression, and evaluated their suitability for clinical use. Methods and Findings: We systematically searched MEDLINE and Embase (1 January 1980 to 20 June 2012). Dual review was conducted to identify studies that reported on the development, validation, or impact assessment of a model constructed to predict the occurrence/presence of CKD or progression to advanced stages. Data were extracted on study characteristics, risk predictors, discrimination, calibration, and reclassification performance of models, as well as validation and impact analyses. We included 26 publications reporting on 30 CKD occurrence prediction risk scores and 17 CKD progression prediction risk scores. The vast majority of CKD risk models had acceptable-to-good discriminatory performance (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve>0.70) in the derivation sample. Calibration was less commonly assessed, but overall was found to be acceptable. Only eight CKD occurrence and five CKD progression risk models have been externally validated, displaying modest-to-acceptable discrimination. Whether novel biomarkers of CKD (circulatory or genetic) can improve prediction largely remains unclear, and impact studies of CKD prediction models have not yet been conducted. Limitations of risk models include the lack of ethnic diversity in derivation samples, and the scarcity of validation studies. The review is limited by the lack of an agreed-on system for rating prediction models, and the difficulty of assessing publication bias. Conclusions: The development and clinical application of renal risk scores is in its infancy; however, the discriminatory performance of existing tools is acceptable. The effect of using these models in practice is still to be explored. Background: Chronic kidney disease (CKD)—the gradual loss of kidney function—is increasingly common worldwide. In the US, for example, about 26 million adults have CKD, and millions more are at risk of developing the condition. Throughout life, small structures called nephrons inside the kidneys filter waste products and excess water from the blood to make urine. If the nephrons stop working because of injury or disease, the rate of blood filtration decreases, and dangerous amounts of waste products such as creatinine build up in the blood. Symptoms of CKD, which rarely occur until the disease is very advanced, include tiredness, swollen feet and ankles, puffiness around the eyes, and frequent urination, especially at night. There is no cure for CKD, but progression of the disease can be slowed by controlling high blood pressure and diabetes, both of which cause CKD, and by adopting a healthy lifestyle. The same interventions also reduce the chances of CKD developing in the first place. Why Was This Study Done?: CKD is associated with an increased risk of end-stage renal disease, which is treated with dialysis or by kidney transplantation (renal replacement therapies), and of cardiovascular disease. These life-threatening complications are potentially preventable through early identification and treatment of CKD, but most people present with advanced disease. Early identification would be particularly useful in developing countries, where renal replacement therapies are not readily available and resources for treating cardiovascular problems are limited. One way to identify people at risk of a disease is to use a “risk model.” Risk models are constructed by testing the ability of different combinations of risk factors that are associated with a specific disease to identify those individuals in a “derivation sample” who have the disease. The model is then validated on an independent group of people. In this systematic review (a study that uses predefined criteria to identify all the research on a given topic), the researchers critically assess the ability of existing CKD risk models to predict the occurrence of CKD and its progression, and evaluate their suitability for clinical use. What Did the Researchers Do and Find?: The researchers identified 26 publications reporting on 30 risk models for CKD occurrence and 17 risk models for CKD progression that met their predefined criteria. The risk factors most commonly included in these models were age, sex, body mass index, diabetes status, systolic blood pressure, serum creatinine, protein in the urine, and serum albumin or total protein. Nearly all the models had acceptable-to-good discriminatory performance (a measure of how well a model separates people who have a disease from people who do not have the disease) in the derivation sample. Not all the models had been calibrated (assessed for whether the average predicted risk within a group matched the proportion that actually developed the disease), but in those that had been assessed calibration was good. Only eight CKD occurrence and five CKD progression risk models had been externally validated; discrimination in the validation samples was modest-to-acceptable. Finally, very few studies had assessed whether adding extra variables to CKD risk models (for example, genetic markers) improved prediction, and none had assessed the impact of adopting CKD risk models on the clinical care and outcomes of patients. What Do These Findings Mean?: These findings suggest that the development and clinical application of CKD risk models is still in its infancy. Specifically, these findings indicate that the existing models need to be better calibrated and need to be externally validated in different populations (most of the models were tested only in predominantly white populations) before they are incorporated into guidelines. The impact of their use on clinical outcomes also needs to be assessed before their widespread use is recommended. Such research is worthwhile, however, because of the potential public health and clinical applications of well-designed risk models for CKD. Such models could be used to identify segments of the population that would benefit most from screening for CKD, for example. Moreover, risk communication to patients could motivate them to adopt a healthy lifestyle and to adhere to prescribed medications, and the use of models for predicting CKD progression could help clinicians tailor disease-modifying therapies to individual patient needs. Additional Information: Please access these websites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001344.