Allocation of time and subjective well-being of female farmers in Songan village, Bali, Indonesia

This study aimed to determine how female farmers in Songan Village allocate their time to earn a living and to interpret the contribution of self-esteem, social support, gender equality, and job satisfaction to their subjective well-being. The study employed an explanatory research design and structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. As an alternative to covariance-based SEM, variance- or component-based SEM, namely the partial least squares (PLS) method, was utilized. The research sample consisted of 201 respondents selected through proportional random sampling. The study found that 1) self-esteem and social support have a direct positive effect on the job satisfaction of female farmers in Songan Village, Bali, but the gender equality variable does not; 2) self-esteem, social support, gender equality, and job satisfaction have a direct positive effect on the subjective welfare of female farmers in Songan Village, Bali; and 3) self-esteem and social support have an indirect effect on the subjective welfare of female farmers in Songan Village, Bali. The female farmers of Songan Village define subjective happiness/well-being in simple terms, asserting that if they are able to meet the needs of their families (meyadnya and menyame braye), they are already happy/have achieved subjective well-being. Women with high self-esteem feel confident that they contribute a significant portion of the family's income. Therefore, the government should pay more attention to the development of women's knowledge and skills, particularly in the agricultural sector.