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The Underground Economy in the United States: Annual Estimates, 1930-80 (L'économie clandestine aux Etats-Unis: estimations annuelles, 1930-80) (La "economía subterránea" de Estados Unidos: Estimaciones anuales, 1930-80)

Author

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  • Vito Tanzi

    (International Monetary Fund)

Abstract

This article presents yearly estimates for the underground economy in the United States for the period 1930-80. The method used for calculation is one developed a few years ago by the author, and it has been used in many other countries. The main conclusions can be summarized as follows: (1) in 1980 the underground economy, expressed as a percentage of gross national product (GNP), was somewhere between 4.5 percent and 6.1 percent; (2) the only other period in which it might have been higher than that was during World War II; (3) it has been increasing since the mid-1960s; and (4) over the period 1965-80, it has grown by more than 2 percentage points of GNP (by almost 50 percent). The recent trend is disturbing, as it seems to have accelerated in recent years, especially since the mid-1970s. This trend was probably influenced by the substantial increase in marginal tax rates over the period 1975-80, caused by inflation and the absence of significant tax cuts. It is not possible at this point to speculate on whether the tax cuts enacted in 1981 have reversed the trend. The results obtained in this paper should not be taken as precise measures of the underground economy; they are, at best, broad indications of trends and of orders of magnitude because they are sensitive to the assumptions made as well as to data revisions. However, it is comforting to realize that for 1974 and 1976 they are of the same order of magnitude as direct estimates by Simon and Witte (1980) and by the Internal Revenue Service (1979). A word on what has been measured is necessary. The estimates attempt to measure the incomes that were associated with the excessive use of cash and that presumably were not reported to the tax authorities. Whether these incomes were or were not measured by the national accounts authorities cannot be determined. Presumably, part of these incomes not only evaded the tax net but also may have escaped the attention of the national accounts authorities--but, how large this part was cannot be assessed with the information at hand. Should this part be large, it would have serious implications for the conduct of economic policy that is based largely on changes in economic activity as reflected by the national accounts. /// Le présent article fournit des estimations annuelles relatives à l'économie clandestine aux Etats-Unis pour la période 1930-80. La méthode utilisée pour effectuer les calculs a été mise au point par l'auteur il y a quelques années et a été appliquée dans de nombreux autres pays. Les conclusions principales peuvent être résumées comme suit: 1) en 1980, l'économie clandestine, exprimée en pourcentage du produit national brut (PNB), s'est située entre 4,5% et 6,1%; 2) la seule période pendant laquelle elle a peut-être représenté un pourcentage plus élevé est celle de la deuxième guerre mondiale; 3) la part de l'économie clandestine a augmenté depuis le milieu des années 60; et 4) au cours de la période 1965-80, elle a augmenté, en proportion du PNB, de plus de deux points de pourcentage (soit de près de 50%). La tendance enregistrée récemment est préoccupante, étant donné que l'économie clandestine semble se développer à un rythme croissant, surtout depuis le milieu des années 70. Cette tendance a probablement été influencée par l'augmentation considérable des taux marginaux d'imposition au cours de la période 1975-80, augmentation due à l'inflation et à l'absence de réduction sensible des impôts. Il n'est pas possible à ce stade de déterminer si les réductions d'impôts adoptées en 1981 ont renversé ou non la tendance. Les résultats figurant dans la présente étude ne doivent pas être considérés comme des mesures précises de l'économie clandestine; ils ne donnent, au mieux, que des indications générales des tendances et des ordres de grandeur parce qu'ils sont sensibles aux hypothèses retenues ainsi qu aux révisions des données. Toutefois, il est rassurant de constater que, pour 1974 et 1976, les chiffres sont du même ordre de grandeur que les estimations directes effectuées par Simon et Witte en 1980, et par l'administration fiscale des Etats-Unis (Internal Revenue Service) en 1979. Il convient de préciser brièvement les éléments qui ont été mesurés. Les estimations cherchent à évaluer les revenus liés à l'utilisation excessive des règlements en espèces et qui n'ont probablement pas été déclarés à l'administration des impôts. Il n'est pas possible de déterminer si ces revenus ont ou non été évalués par les services responsables de la comptabilité nationale. Selon toute vraisemblance, une partie de ces revenus a non seulement échappé à l'impôt mais, en outre, a échappé à l'attention des services de la comptabilité nationale; toutefois, il n'est pas possible d'évaluer, sur la base des renseignements disponibles, l'ampleur de cette partie des revenus. Si elle est effectivement importante, elle pourrait avoir des effets graves sur la conduite de la politique économique qui se fonde essentiellement sur les variations de l'activité économique telles qu'elles apparaissent dans la comptabilité nationale. /// En este estudio se presentan estimaciones anuales de la "economía subterránea" de Estados Unidos durante el período 1930-80. El método empleado para el cálculo es el ideado hace unos años por el autor y se ha aplicado ya en muchos otros países. Las conclusiones principales serían las siguientes: 1) en 1980 la "economía subterránea", medida en porcentaje del producto nacional bruto (PNB), se situó entre 4,5 por ciento y 6,1 por ciento; 2) el otro período en que podría haber sido superior fue el correspondiente a la segunda guerra mundial; 3) "la economía subterránea" ha venido creciendo desde mediados del decenio de los sesenta, y 4) durante el período 1965-80 ha aumentado más de 2 puntos porcentuales del PNB (casi 50 por ciento). Esta última tendencia es alarmante ya que parece haberse acelerado en los últimos años, especialmente a partir de mediados del decenio de los setenta. Probablemente esta propensión se haya visto influida por el gran aumento de las tasas impositivas marginales durante el período 1975-80 causado por la inflación y la falta de reducciones tributarias significativas. De momento no se puede saber si las reducciones tributarias de 1981 habrán invertido la tendencia. Los resultados obtenidos en este artículo no deben entenderse como medidas precisas de la "economía subterránea"; en el mejor de los casos son una indicación general de tendencias y de órdenes de magnitud que a su vez están influenciados por los supuestos utilizados y posibles revisiones de datos. Sin embargo, resulta alentador comprobar que para 1974 y 1976 son del mismo orden de magnitud que las estimaciones directas de Simon y Witte (1980) y de la Dirección de Impuestos de Estados Unidos (1979). Conviene puntualizar qué ha sido objeto de medición en este estudio. Las estimaciones tratan de cuantificar ingresos asociados al uso excesivo de dinero en efectivo y que puede suponerse no fueron declarados a las autoridades tributarias. No puede determinarse si estos ingresos han sido o no contabilizados por las autoridades encargadas de las cuentas nacionales. Cabe suponer que parte de estos ingresos no sólo evadieron ilegalmente la red tributaria sino que además escaparon de la atención de las autoridades a cargo de las cuentas nacionales. Sin embargo, con la información disponible, no es posible saber de qué porcentaje se trata. Si este porcentaje de ingresos es importante, tendría serias consecuencias sobre la aplicación de la política económica, ya que ésta se basa en gran medida en las variaciones de la actividad económica tal como se reflejan en las cuentas nacionales.

Suggested Citation

  • Vito Tanzi, 1983. "The Underground Economy in the United States: Annual Estimates, 1930-80 (L'économie clandestine aux Etats-Unis: estimations annuelles, 1930-80) (La "economía subterránea" de Estados Unido," IMF Staff Papers, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 30(2), pages 283-305, June.
  • Handle: RePEc:pal:imfstp:v:30:y:1983:i:2:p:283-305
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    1. Cebula, Richard J., 2011. "Aggregate Income Tax Evasion: Empirical Results Using new IRS Data for the U.S. - L’evasione aggregata del reddito: risultati empirici ottenuti utilizzando i nuovi dati IRS per gli USA," Economia Internazionale / International Economics, Camera di Commercio Industria Artigianato Agricoltura di Genova, vol. 64(4), pages 423-443.
    2. Friedrich Schneider & Dominik Enste, 1999. "Shadow Economies Around the World - Size, Causes, and Consequences," CESifo Working Paper Series 196, CESifo.
    3. Friedrich SCHNEIDER, 2016. "Estimating the Size of the Shadow Economy: Methods, Problems and Open Questions," Turkish Economic Review, KSP Journals, vol. 3(2), pages 256-280, June.
    4. Piotr Dybka & Bartosz Olesiński & Marek Rozkrut & Andrzej Torój, 2020. "Measuring the uncertainty of shadow economy estimates using Bayesian and frequentist model averaging," KAE Working Papers 2020-046, Warsaw School of Economics, Collegium of Economic Analysis.
    5. Michael Pickhardt & Jordi Sardà, "undated". "Cash, Hoarding and the Underground Economy," Working Papers 201282, Institute of Spatial and Housing Economics, Munster Universitary.
    6. Guerino Ardizzi & Carmelo Petraglia & Massimiliano Piacenza & Friedrich Schneider & Gilberto Turati, 2013. "Money Laundering as a Financial Sector Crime - A New Approach to Measurement, with an Application to Italy," CESifo Working Paper Series 4127, CESifo.
    7. Terral Mapp & Winston Moore, 2015. "The informal economy and economic volatility," Macroeconomics and Finance in Emerging Market Economies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 8(1-2), pages 185-200, July.
    8. Trevor Breusch, 2005. "Australia's Cash Economy: Are the Estimates Credible?," The Economic Record, The Economic Society of Australia, vol. 81(255), pages 394-403, December.
    9. M. Ali Kemal, 2007. "A Fresh Assessment of the Underground Economy and Tax Evasion in Pakistan : Causes, Consequences, and Linkages with the Formal Economy," Microeconomics Working Papers 22200, East Asian Bureau of Economic Research.
    10. Emmanuel Umoru Haruna & Usman Alhassan, 2022. "Does digitalization limit the proliferation of the shadow economy in African countries? An in‐depth panel analysis," African Development Review, African Development Bank, vol. 34(S1), pages 34-62, July.
    11. Zoë Kuehn, 2014. "Tax Rates, Governance, And The Informal Economy In High-Income Countries," Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, vol. 52(1), pages 405-430, January.
    12. Michael Pickhardt & Jordi Sarda, 2011. "The size of the underground economy in Germany: a correction of the record and new evidence from the modified-cash-deposit-ratio approach," European Journal of Law and Economics, Springer, vol. 32(1), pages 143-163, August.
    13. Michael Pickhardt & Jordi Sardà, 2015. "Size and causes of the underground economy in Spain: a correction of the record and new evidence from the MCDR approach," European Journal of Law and Economics, Springer, vol. 39(2), pages 403-429, April.
    14. Dobrescu, Emilian, 1998. "Macromodels of the Romanian transition economy, Second edition," MPRA Paper 35825, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    15. Renzo Orsi & Davide Raggi & Francesco Turino, 2014. "Size, Trend, and Policy Implications of the Underground Economy," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 17(3), pages 417-436, July.
    16. Feige, Edgar L. & Cebula, Richard, 2011. "America’s unreported economy: measuring the size, growth and determinants of income tax evasion in the U.S," MPRA Paper 34781, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    17. Joanna Tyrowicz & Stanisław Cichocki, 2011. "Employed unemployed? On shadow employment in transition," Empirica, Springer;Austrian Institute for Economic Research;Austrian Economic Association, vol. 38(2), pages 259-281, May.
    18. Cebula, Richard J. & Coombs, Christopher & Yang, Bill Z., 2009. "The Tax Reform Act of 1986: An Assessment in Terms of Tax Compliance Behavior," Economia Internazionale / International Economics, Camera di Commercio Industria Artigianato Agricoltura di Genova, vol. 62(2), pages 145-162.
    19. James Alm & Abel Embaye, 2013. "Using Dynamic Panel Methods to Estimate Shadow Economies Around the World, 1984-2006," Working Papers 1303, Tulane University, Department of Economics.
    20. Piotr Dybka & Michał Kowalczuk & Bartosz Olesiński & Andrzej Torój & Marek Rozkrut, 2019. "Currency demand and MIMIC models: towards a structured hybrid method of measuring the shadow economy," International Tax and Public Finance, Springer;International Institute of Public Finance, vol. 26(1), pages 4-40, February.
    21. M. Ali Kemal, 2003. "Underground Economy and Tax Evasion in Pakistan A Critical Evaluation," PIDE-Working Papers 2003:184, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics.
    22. Soheila Kaghazian & Isa Zaghi Jojadeh & Yazdan Naghdi, 2015. "Underground Economy Estimation in Iran by Mimic Method," Economic Studies journal, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences - Economic Research Institute, issue 1, pages 90-109.
    23. Florencia Verónica Pedroni & Gabriela Pesce & Anahí Briozzo & Sandro Monsueto, 2020. "Subdeclaración de ventas en la Argentina: ¿qué tamano y determinantes tiene el fenómeno desde la percepción de los profesionales en ciencias económicas?," Revista Desarrollo y Sociedad, Universidad de los Andes,Facultad de Economía, CEDE, vol. 85(1), June.

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