Organic chemistry of embalming agents in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman mummies

Chemical treatments were an essential element of ancient Egyptian mummification. Although the inorganic salt natron is recognized as having a central role as a desiccant1, without the application of organic preservatives the bodies would have decomposed in the humid environment of the tombs2. The nature of the organic treatments remains obscure, because the ancient Egyptians left no written record of the process. Secondary textual evidence for mummification is provided by Herodotus3, Diodorus Siculus4, Strabo5 and Pliny6. The most important account is that of Herodotus3 (about 450 yr bc), although archaeological evidence shows that by this time the process had declined significantly and the best results had been achieved centuries before7. His account mentions myrrh, cassia, palm wine, ‘cedar oil’ (still widely disputed8,9,10) and ‘gum’; however, it is vague with respect to the specific natural products used. Here we report the results of chemical investigations of a substantial collection of samples of tissues, wrappings and ‘resinous/bituminous’ materials from provenanced and dated Egyptian mummies. We focused on examples of the ‘classic’ mummy-making culture of the Pharaonic or dynastic period, from which we can begin to track the development of mummification chronologically.