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Effects of Sachet Water Consumption on Exposure to Microbe-Contaminated Drinking Water: Household Survey Evidence from Ghana

Author

Listed:
  • Jim Wright

    (Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK)

  • Mawuli Dzodzomenyo

    (Ghana School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Accra PO Box LG13, Ghana)

  • Nicola A. Wardrop

    (Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK)

  • Richard Johnston

    (Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP), Department of Public Health, Environmental and Social Determinants of Health (PHE), World Health Organization, Geneva 1211 Switzerland)

  • Allan Hill

    (Social Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK)

  • Genevieve Aryeetey

    (Ghana School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Accra PO Box LG13, Ghana)

  • Richard Adanu

    (Ghana School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Accra PO Box LG13, Ghana)

Abstract

There remain few nationally representative studies of drinking water quality at the point of consumption in developing countries. This study aimed to examine factors associated with E. coli contamination in Ghana. It drew on a nationally representative household survey, the 2012−2013 Living Standards Survey 6, which incorporated a novel water quality module. E. coli contamination in 3096 point-of-consumption samples was examined using multinomial regression. Surface water use was the strongest risk factor for high E. coli contamination (relative risk ratio (RRR) = 32.3, p < 0.001), whilst packaged (sachet or bottled) water use had the greatest protective effect (RRR = 0.06, p < 0.001), compared to water piped to premises. E. coli contamination followed plausible patterns with digit preference (tendency to report values ending in zero) in bacteria counts. The analysis suggests packaged drinking water use provides some protection against point-of-consumption E. coli contamination and may therefore benefit public health. It also suggests viable water quality data can be collected alongside household surveys, but field protocols require further revision.

Suggested Citation

  • Jim Wright & Mawuli Dzodzomenyo & Nicola A. Wardrop & Richard Johnston & Allan Hill & Genevieve Aryeetey & Richard Adanu, 2016. "Effects of Sachet Water Consumption on Exposure to Microbe-Contaminated Drinking Water: Household Survey Evidence from Ghana," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 13(3), pages 1-17, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:13:y:2016:i:3:p:303-:d:65373
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Joshua S Gruber & Ayse Ercumen & John M Colford Jr, 2014. "Coliform Bacteria as Indicators of Diarrheal Risk in Household Drinking Water: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 9(9), pages 1-14, September.
    2. Michael B Fisher & Ashley R Williams & Mohamed F Jalloh & George Saquee & Robert E S Bain & Jamie K Bartram, 2015. "Microbiological and Chemical Quality of Packaged Sachet Water and Household Stored Drinking Water in Freetown, Sierra Leone," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 10(7), pages 1-17, July.
    3. repec:cai:poeine:pope_704_0729 is not listed on IDEAS
    4. Colin Kirkpatrick & David Parker & Yin-Fang Zhang, 2006. "An Empirical Analysis of State and Private-Sector Provision of Water Services in Africa," The World Bank Economic Review, World Bank, vol. 20(1), pages 143-163.
    5. Robert Bain & Ryan Cronk & Jim Wright & Hong Yang & Tom Slaymaker & Jamie Bartram, 2014. "Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis," PLOS Medicine, Public Library of Science, vol. 11(5), pages 1-23, May.
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