The Causal Nexus Among Energy Dependency, Human Capital, and Renewable Energy: An Empirical Analysis for EU Members

Countries have turned to developing renewable energy production, avoiding the risks posed by the disruptions in global energy trade, the high volatility in energy prices, and the remarkable environmental impairment. Numerous economic, environmental, institutional, and social factors have been put forward as driving factors toward renewable energy. The goal of this research article is to study the causal nexus among energy dependency, human capital, real GDP per capita, CO 2 emissions, and renewable energy of the 27 EU members between 2000 and 2020 through Emirmahmutoglu and Kose causality test. The results of the panel-level causality tests demonstrate feedback interplay among energy dependency, human capital, real GDP per capita, CO 2 emissions, and renewable energy use. However, the results of the country-level causality analysis unveil that the interplay among renewable energy utilization, energy dependency, real GDP per capita, CO 2 emissions, and human capital remarkably varies among EU members. The results of this study suggest that renewable energy investments are significant instruments to make progress in energy security, human capital, real GDP per capita, and CO 2 emissions. Furthermore, energy security, human capital, real GDP per capita, and CO 2 emissions are significant drivers of renewable energy development.