Determinants of youth financial inclusion in MENA countries: account holding versus the use of digital services

Purpose - Youths aged 15–34 make half the population of Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and over one quarter of the labour force. The purpose of this paper is to address the two following questions. Why youths from Egypt, Jordan and Tunisia lack financial inclusion before (2014 and 2017) and during (2021) the COVID-19 pandemic? What are the determinants of their financial inclusion? Design/methodology/approach - Financial inclusion encapsulates account holding at financial institutions and the use of digital services they provide. Two probit regressions address financial inclusion regarding these two dimensions, upon three pooled samples selected from the Global Findex Database, each sample gathering roughly 3,000 households including over two-fifths of youths. Findings - Five results regarding financial inclusion highlight the role of job-status, income, education, gender and age. Prior the pandemic, financial inclusion of young entrepreneurs is affected by (female) gender, (middle) income, (low) education level and country policy. During the pandemic, y women became more financially included; there was no age gap regarding digital services; and despite improvement, digital services remain unsuitable for poorly educated youth. Gender has no effect on the financial inclusion of young employees before and during the pandemic. Research limitations/implications - Government policy should target youth underserved population to foster financial inclusion, distinguishing voluntary from involuntary reasons of financial exclusion. Originality/value - To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no paper has addressed yet the determinants of youth financial inclusion, especially the use of digital services, with a focus on job status (entrepreneurs vs employees) in MENA countries, prior and during the pandemic.