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Social inequality and depressive disorders in Bahia, Brazil: interactions of gender, ethnicity, and social class

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Listed:
  • Almeida-Filho, Naomar
  • Lessa, Ines
  • Magalhães, Lucélia
  • Araújo, Maria Jenny
  • Aquino, Estela
  • James, Sherman A.
  • Kawachi, Ichiro

Abstract

We conducted a study of the association between gender, race/ethnicity, and social class and prevalence of depressive disorders in an urban sample (N=2302) in Bahia, Brazil. Individual mental health status was assessed by the PSAD/QMPA scale. Family SES and head of household's schooling and occupation were taken as components for a 4-level social class scale. Race/ethnicity (white, moreno, mulatto, black) was assessed with a combination of self-designation and a system of racial classification. The overall 12-month prevalence of depressive symptoms was 12%, with a female:male ratio of 2:1. Divorced/widowed persons showed the highest prevalence and single the lowest. There was a negative correlation with education: the ratio college educated:illiterate was 4:1. This gradient was stronger for women than men. There was no F:M difference in depression among Whites, upper-middle classes, college-educated, or illiterate. Prevalence ratios for single, widowed and Blacks were well above the overall pattern. Regarding race/ethnicity, higher prevalences of depression were concentrated in the Moreno and Mulatto subgroups. There was a consistent social class and gender interaction, along all race/ethnicity strata. Three-way interaction analyses found strong gender effect for poor and working-class groups, for all race/ethnicity strata but Whites. Black poor yielded the strongest gender effect of all (up to nine-fold). We conclude that even in a highly unequal context such as Bahia, Blacks, Mulattos and women were protected from depression by placement into the local dominant classes; and that the social meaning of ethnic-gender-generation diversity varies with being unemployed or underemployed, poor or miserable, urban or rural, migrant or non-migrant.

Suggested Citation

  • Almeida-Filho, Naomar & Lessa, Ines & Magalhães, Lucélia & Araújo, Maria Jenny & Aquino, Estela & James, Sherman A. & Kawachi, Ichiro, 2004. "Social inequality and depressive disorders in Bahia, Brazil: interactions of gender, ethnicity, and social class," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 59(7), pages 1339-1353, October.
  • Handle: RePEc:eee:socmed:v:59:y:2004:i:7:p:1339-1353
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    Cited by:

    1. Morasae, Esmaeil Khedmati & Forouzan, Ameneh Setareh & Asadi-Lari, Mohsen & Majdzadeh, Reza, 2012. "Revealing mental health status in Iran's capital: Putting equity and efficiency together," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 75(3), pages 531-537.
    2. Adrian Mundt & T Kliewe & S Yayla & Y Ignatyev & MA Busch & H Heimann & A Heinz & MA Rapp & M Schouler-Ocak & A Ströhle & MC Aichberger, 2014. "Social characteristics of psychological distress in disadvantaged areas of Berlin," International Journal of Social Psychiatry, , vol. 60(1), pages 75-82, February.
    3. Malmusi, Davide & Borrell, Carme & Benach, Joan, 2010. "Migration-related health inequalities: Showing the complex interactions between gender, social class and place of origin," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 71(9), pages 1610-1619, November.
    4. Judith EB van der Waerden & Cees Hoefnagels & Clemens MH Hosman & Maria WJ Jansen, 2014. "Defining subgroups of low socioeconomic status women at risk for depressive symptoms: The importance of perceived stress and cumulative risks," International Journal of Social Psychiatry, , vol. 60(8), pages 772-782, December.
    5. Verónica Amarante & Martín Brun & Cecilia Rossel, 2020. "Poverty and inequality in Latin America’s research agenda: A bibliometric review," Development Policy Review, Overseas Development Institute, vol. 38(4), pages 465-482, July.
    6. Perreira, Krista M. & Telles, Edward E., 2014. "The color of health: Skin color, ethnoracial classification, and discrimination in the health of Latin Americans," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 116(C), pages 241-250.
    7. Eleonora Trappolini & Cristina Giudici, 2021. "Gendering health differences between nonmigrants and migrants by duration of stay in Italy," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 45(7), pages 221-258.

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