Environmental impact of photovoltaic modules in Malaysia: Recycling versus landfilling

Malaysia has recently accelerated renewable energy (RE) adoption, primarily through the introduction of large-scale solar (LSS) projects. However, limited attention has been directed to the end-of-life (EoL) management of waste photovoltaic (PV) modules from decommissioned LSS plants. To evaluate the long-term sustainability of PV systems while ensuring alignment with Malaysia's energy transition goals, a cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis is conducted on a 15 MWP LSS plant utilizing monocrystalline-silicon modules located in Malaysia. Findings reveal that production phase is the most impact-intensive, contributing over 73 % of impacts across most midpoint impact categories. The operation and maintenance (O&M) phase is the second largest contributor, accounting for over 50 % of water depletion impact. Among three EoL management approaches investigated – landfilling, Full-Recovery End-of-Life Photovoltaics (FRELP), and the modified FRELP (Mod-FRELP) recycling processes, landfilling is strongly discouraged due to its lack of materials recovery, and a non-compensable urban land occupation impact of 5354.62 m2a, even after considering electricity generation credits from the plant. The Mod-FRELP process, incorporating decentralised sorting facilities, two-step thermal treatment, and iodine-iodide chemical treatment, could reduce impacts by 3.28 %–151.16 % compared to FRELP across thirteen midpoint categories. Mod-FRELP also achieves 19.96 % greater net environmental credits than FRELP in endpoint analysis, demonstrating its suitability for managing EoL modules sustainably. Further research into greener chemical reagents for copper connectors recovery and alternatives to treat peeled-off fluorinated backsheets is recommended to enhance Mod-FRELP's environmental performance, aligning with United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and SDG 13 (Climate Action).