Implications of carbon management with forest plantation on understocked, degraded and bare forests: Simulated long-term dynamics between timber production and carbon sequestration

Forest plantations hold substantial promise for effective management of biomass through forestation of understocked forests to achieve optimal carbon management. This study investigates active forest management to explore trade-offs between timber and carbon sequestration by analyzing four management scenarios with ETÇAP model in a forest area in Türkiye, adhering to national management guidelines. The results highlight the significance of selecting appropriate tree species and plantation levels to harmonize ecosystem services. Plantations with higher amounts offer greater opportunities for harvested volume and carbon stock. Black pine appeared as a superior performer of carbon stock (204.98 Mg ha−1) compared to other tree species, while hardwood species enhance soil carbon and habitat. The living and litter carbon showed substantial increases, surpassing 100 Mg ha−1 across all strategies. Cumulative carbon and balance variations stem mainly from forest growth, with softwood plantations achieving the highest increment of 1.9–5.6 m³ ha⁻1 year⁻1 by 2110. The study highlighted the critical role of forest soil and living carbon in driving carbon dynamics. It is essential to formulate appropriate management strategies when choosing tree species and their planting rates for climate-smart forestry, pinpointing a notable limitation that the carbon stock is calculated regardless of variations in tree sizes.