Envisaging nature-based solutions as designed ecosystems in the changing world

The tide of global biodiversity decline is unlikely to be turned without conservation efforts on human land-uses. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) seem to be a particularly promising set of tools that could be mobilized for this purpose. The problem, however, is that application of sustainable practices in NbS on human land-uses does not guarantee capability of these ecosystems to maintain biodiversity. In addition to that, changing climate conditions, if not adequately addressed during the NbS design process, in longer term, may undermine persistence of the ecosystem itself and of species assemblages inhabiting it. Thus, there is a clear need to understand the factors determining capability of NbS on human land-uses to maintain biodiversity and to sustain it under global heating. Although the NbS can take different forms, including forest plantations, sustainable forestry practices, sustainable agriculture and urban green infrastructure, considering the NbS as designed ecosystems can help determining factors relevant to all or most NbS on human land-uses. Thus, the aim of this paper is to explore these factors by synthesising relevant knowledge, investigate interconnections between the factors, and provide recommendations for land use planning. Considering the factors and interconnections between them we propose an innovative overarching approach to NbS design and management on human land-uses.