The evolving role of government in the adaptive governance of freshwater social-ecological systems in the western US

The role of government within the western United States is shifting, as government command and control policies inadequately address freshwater management complexity. As growing human and environmental needs intensify water resource governance challenges, government is increasingly combining existing regulatory structures with collaborative exchange mechanisms, such as Investments in Watershed Services (IWS). We explored the changing role of government through IWS in the west, a region that holds one of the highest concentrations of IWS globally. Through a survey, we collected and analysed information on the influence of government in IWS. All 48 identified IWS contained some form of government presence: as program participants, regulation drivers, or land managers, and in both voluntary and regulatory contexts. Government influence on IWS varies across water issue (in-stream flow, water quality, and source water protection), and level of government (local, state and federal). Our work demonstrates how the government is expanding its roles and responsibilities, moving beyond historic command and control roles to support and facilitate new mechanisms. Although most government presence in early IWS was regulatory, local, state and federal governments are increasingly participating directly in IWS. State government have expanded regulatory structures for instream flow, and federal and local government are collaborating in source water protection. We found that government is reactionary, pragmatic, and incremental in their responses to water management. Our work provides the first government-specific analysis of IWS in the western US, and provides insights into the evolving role of government in adaptive governance of freshwater resources.