Role of gender in determining energy poverty, clean energy access, and energy expenditure: Insights from rural China

Gender shapes individuals' resource access and economic performance, serving as a prerequisite for rural energy poverty reduction and energy transition — two central tasks of rural development. However, the role of gender in determining rural energy poverty and energy transition has not been properly explored. This study explores gender differences in energy poverty, clean energy access, and energy expenditure among rural Chinese households. We employ the multidimensional energy poverty index (MEPI) to capture household energy poverty comprehensively. An exogenous switching treatment regression model is applied to analyze survey data of 1485 rural households from eastern, central, and western China (Jiangsu, Hubei, and Yunnan provinces, respectively). The results show that rural households with male heads have a lower level of MEPI than those with female heads. Relative to rural households with female heads, those with male heads are more likely to access clean energy for cooking and heating and spend more on energy for heating than those with female heads. The disaggregated analyses reveal that large-sized households, regardless of male or female household heads, tend to have a lower MEPI and higher probability of accessing clean energy for cooking and heating than medium- and small-sized households. Our findings highlight that gender is not neutral when determining household energy poverty and use patterns. There is a great need to empower rural women (especially those in small-sized households) by offering them skills training, financial support, and energy consumption subsidies. By doing so, rural females can be equally involved in making household decisions in energy use activities, which would eventually help reduce energy poverty and promote clean energy use.