Life cycle external cost assessment of an onshore wind farm in South Africa

Wind power has been crucial in global energy transitions over the past decade. Such transitions are evident in sub-Saharan Africa, where South Africa is a leading player. Onshore wind power is pivotal in South Africa's energy transition, but the comprehensive external costs of the technology remain unexplored. Conducting a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a 138 MW wind farm, this study aims to fill the existing gap in the literature, by assessing greenhouse gas (GHG) and non-GHG impacts, and then converting them into costs. This study provides critical insights into the environmental, health, biodiversity, crops, and materials impact of onshore wind power, contributing towards improving the overall sustainability of offshore wind power. Findings from the study indicate that climate change impacts contribute 26.1 gCO2eq/kWh, while human health impacts emerge as the most significant non-GHG impact. The onshore wind farm's external cost ranges from 5.95 to 9.88 ZAc/kWh (2.9–4.82 €/MWh), with a median of 6.75 ZAc/kWh (3.29 €/MWh), falling within ranges observed in the literature. Climate change and human health jointly account for 89.4 % of the median external costs, primarily associated with the manufacturing and construction phases. This study underscores the importance of including external costs in the comprehensive assessment of wind power, driven by the decreasing technology costs. The findings highlight the need to incorporate climate change and human health costs to better understand the sustainability of onshore wind power across its life cycle.